§-Module

NSWModern History← Modern History syllabus

Section III (Peace and Conflict): Conflict in the Gulf 1980-2011

16 dot points across 16 inquiry questions, in syllabus order. Each dot point has a focused answer, with exam-style questions and worked answers where available.

How did Gulf civilians experience and suffer through the conflicts of 1980 to 2011?

The impact of the Gulf conflicts on civilians, including the Iran-Iraq War's casualties, the Halabja chemical attack, the 1991 Shia and Kurdish uprisings, sanctions-era humanitarian crisis, the Iraqi insurgency casualties, and the refugee flows

Civilians. Iranian and Iraqi war dead, Halabja and al-Anfal, the 1991 uprisings, the humanitarian crisis under UN sanctions, the 2003 invasion, the 2006-07 sectarian war casualties, and refugee flows.

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How did oil shape the conflicts of the Gulf between 1980 and 2011?

The role of oil and OPEC in the conflicts of the Gulf, including the strategic importance of Gulf oil, oil prices as a cause and consequence of conflict, the Tanker War, attacks on oil infrastructure, and the security guarantees that the major powers extended

Oil. The strategic dependence on Gulf oil, OPEC quotas and Iraqi-Kuwaiti disputes, oil-price spikes around each conflict, the Tanker War and Operation Earnest Will, the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields in 1991, the role of oil in the 2003 war debate, and the Carter Doctrine security guarantee.

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How did Saddam Hussein consolidate power in Iraq and what kind of regime did he build?

The role of Saddam Hussein, including his rise to power, the nature of the Baathist regime, the cult of personality, the repression of the Kurds and Shia, and his decisions for war in 1980, 1990 and 2003

Saddam Hussein. His rise through the Baath Party, the takeover of July 1979, the Baathist police state, the cult of personality, the al-Anfal genocide against the Kurds, the suppression of the 1991 Shia uprising, and the three wars that defined the regime.

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How did the media and the technology of warfare change across the conflicts of the Gulf 1980 to 2011?

The role of the media and the changing nature of warfare in the Gulf, including the CNN effect, embedded reporting, precision-guided weapons, stealth aircraft, drones, asymmetric warfare, IEDs, and the rise of Al Jazeera

Media and warfare. CNN 1991 and the pool system, Al Jazeera from 1996, embedded reporting in 2003, precision munitions, stealth aircraft, drones, IEDs, Highway of Death, Mission Accomplished, Firdos Square, Abu Ghraib, and WikiLeaks.

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How was Iraq expelled from Kuwait in 1991 and why was the war ended so quickly?

The course and outcome of Operation Desert Storm 1991, including the air campaign, the ground offensive, the role of new military technology, the Highway of Death, and the decision to end the war on 28 February 1991

Operation Desert Storm. The 38-day air campaign opened 17 January 1991, the 100-hour ground campaign of 24-28 February 1991, precision-guided munitions and stealth aircraft, the Highway of Death, and President Bush 41's decision to end the war with Saddam still in power.

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Who was Ayatollah Khomeini and how did he shape Iran's role in the conflicts of the Gulf?

The role of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, including his exile, his return in 1979, the doctrine of velayat-e faqih, his conduct of the Iran-Iraq War, and his foreign-policy legacy after his death in 1989

Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. His clerical formation, exile from 1964, the doctrine of velayat-e faqih, the return on 1 February 1979, the founding of the Islamic Republic, the conduct of the Iran-Iraq War 1980-88, the 1988 prison executions and the Rushdie fatwa, and his death on 3 June 1989.

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How and why did President George W. Bush decide on the 2003 invasion of Iraq?

The role of President George W. Bush (Bush 43), including the Vulcans, the case for war, UN Resolution 1441, the Powell UN address, the absence of a second resolution, and the decision for invasion

President George W. Bush and the road to the 2003 Iraq war. The Vulcans (Cheney, Rumsfeld, Wolfowitz, Rice), the WMD case, UN Resolution 1441 of November 2002, Powell's UN Security Council address of 5 February 2003, the failure to win a second resolution, and the 17 March 2003 ultimatum that launched the invasion.

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How did President George H. W. Bush respond to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and what did he mean by a New World Order?

The role of President George H. W. Bush (Bush 41), including the formation of the 35-nation Coalition, the diplomacy at the United Nations, the decision to end Desert Storm with Saddam in power, and the New World Order rhetoric of 1990 to 1992

President George H. W. Bush. The 5 August 1990 line in the sand, the Coalition assembly with Baker and Scowcroft, the September 1990 New World Order speech, UNSCR 678 brinkmanship, the Highway of Death and the 28 February 1991 ceasefire, and the post-war containment policy.

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Why did the Iran-Iraq War last eight years and what were its consequences for the Gulf?

The course and consequences of the Iran-Iraq War 1980 to 1988, including its origins, the phases of the war, the use of chemical weapons, the War of the Cities, the Tanker War and superpower involvement, and the UN ceasefire of 1988

Iran-Iraq War. Saddam Hussein's invasion of 22 September 1980, the Iranian counter-offensive of 1982, the trench-warfare stalemate, the War of the Cities, the Tanker War, chemical weapons, the USS Stark and USS Vincennes incidents, and the UN Resolution 598 ceasefire of 20 July 1988.

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How did the Iranian Revolution of 1979 reshape the strategic balance of the Gulf and create the conditions for three decades of regional conflict?

The origins and consequences of the Iranian Revolution 1979, including the fall of the Shah, the role of Ayatollah Khomeini, the hostage crisis, and the impact on regional and superpower politics

Iranian Revolution 1979. The fall of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the return of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the Islamic Republic, the US embassy hostage crisis, and the strategic shock to the Gulf and the superpowers.

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Why did Iraq descend into insurgency and sectarian civil war after 2003 and how was the violence eventually brought under control?

The course and consequences of the Iraqi insurgency and sectarian civil war 2003 to 2008, including the Sunni insurgency, al-Qaeda in Iraq, the bombing of the al-Askari shrine, the Shia militias, the 2007 Surge, and the Sons of Iraq Awakening

Iraqi insurgency. The Sunni insurgency from 2003, al-Qaeda in Iraq under Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, the al-Askari shrine bombing of 22 February 2006, the sectarian civil war 2006-2007, the Surge under General David Petraeus, the Sons of Iraq Awakening, and the violence reduction by 2008.

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Why did Saddam Hussein invade Kuwait in August 1990 and how did the international community respond?

The causes and immediate consequences of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990, including the post-war debt crisis, the role of the United Nations, and the formation of the Coalition

Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Saddam's post-war debt and oil-price grievances, the April Glaspie meeting, the invasion of 2 August 1990, the annexation, the UN Security Council response (Resolutions 660, 661, 662, 678), and the formation of the 35-nation Coalition under Bush 41.

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How did the attacks of 11 September 2001 and the resulting War on Terror reshape US strategy in the Gulf?

The impact of the 11 September 2001 attacks and the War on Terror on US policy in the Gulf, including the Bush Doctrine, the invasion of Afghanistan, the Axis of Evil speech, and the road to the 2003 Iraq War

9/11 and the War on Terror. The al-Qaeda attacks of 11 September 2001, the invasion of Afghanistan and Operation Enduring Freedom, the Bush Doctrine and the National Security Strategy of September 2002, the Axis of Evil speech of January 2002, and the road from 9/11 to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

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How did the 2003 invasion of Iraq unfold, and why did the rapid conventional victory not produce a stable post-war Iraq?

The course and immediate outcome of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, including the Coalition order of battle, the three-week ground campaign, the fall of Baghdad on 9 April 2003, the looting and breakdown of order, and the early occupation under the Coalition Provisional Authority

2003 Iraq War. The Coalition order of battle, the 20 March 2003 invasion, the V Corps drive on Baghdad, the Marine advance through Nasiriyah, the Thunder Run on 5-7 April, the fall of Baghdad on 9 April, the looting, the 1 May 2003 Mission Accomplished speech, and the Coalition Provisional Authority under Bremer.

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How did the US war in Iraq end, and what was the state of Iraq at the December 2011 withdrawal?

The negotiation of the Status of Forces Agreement, the Obama withdrawal timeline, the final US departure on 18 December 2011, the costs of the war, and the unstable Iraq inherited by the Maliki government

US withdrawal from Iraq. The November 2008 US-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement, the Obama February 2009 withdrawal plan, the failure of follow-on SOFA talks in 2011, the final convoy departure of 18 December 2011, the costs of the eight-year war, and the fragile state Maliki inherited.

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How did UN sanctions, no-fly zones, and weapons inspections seek to contain Iraq between 1991 and 2003, and why did containment ultimately fail?

The international response to Iraq 1991 to 2003, including UN sanctions, the No-Fly Zones, UNSCOM weapons inspections, the humanitarian consequences, the Oil-for-Food Programme, and the failure of containment

Containment of Iraq. UN Resolution 687 of 3 April 1991, UNSCOM weapons inspections under Rolf Ekeus and Richard Butler, the Northern and Southern No-Fly Zones, the Oil-for-Food Programme of 1995, the humanitarian crisis, Operation Desert Fox 1998, and the breakdown of containment by 2003.

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