← Section III (Peace and Conflict): Conflict in the Gulf 1980-2011
Why did Saddam Hussein invade Kuwait in August 1990 and how did the international community respond?
The causes and immediate consequences of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990, including the post-war debt crisis, the role of the United Nations, and the formation of the Coalition
A focused answer to the HSC Modern History Conflict in the Gulf dot point on the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Saddam's post-war debt and oil-price grievances, the April Glaspie meeting, the invasion of 2 August 1990, the annexation, the UN Security Council response (Resolutions 660, 661, 662, 678), and the formation of the 35-nation Coalition under Bush 41.
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What this dot point is asking
NESA expects you to explain why Saddam Hussein invaded Kuwait, how the invasion happened, and how the international community responded. Strong answers integrate the long-term and short-term causes (debt, oil prices, territorial claims, Glaspie meeting), the invasion itself, the annexation, the UN Security Council resolutions, and the formation of the US-led Coalition.
The answer
The post-war Iraq problem
Iraq emerged from the Iran-Iraq War (ceasefire 20 August 1988) with an army of around 1 million but a wrecked economy. Foreign debt totalled around 80 billion US dollars. Annual debt service exceeded annual oil revenues. The regime needed money.
The major creditors were the Gulf monarchies (Saudi Arabia and Kuwait, around 30 billion each), Western governments, and Soviet bloc arms suppliers. Saddam framed the war as having defended the Arab world from Iranian revolutionary expansion and argued the Gulf loans should be cancelled.
Oil prices and Kuwait
Iraq needed oil at around 25 US dollars per barrel to service debt and rebuild. Through 1989 and 1990 Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates consistently exceeded their OPEC production quotas, pushing prices down. By July 1990 oil traded at around 14 US dollars per barrel. Every dollar below 25 cost Iraq about 1 billion US dollars per year.
The Rumaila oilfield straddles the Iraq-Kuwait border. Iraq accused Kuwait of slant drilling under the border to extract Iraqi oil; the claim was largely unsupported by evidence.
Diplomatic build-up: May to July 1990
The Arab Cooperation Council summit at Baghdad (28-30 May 1990) heard Saddam attack Kuwait. The 16 July 1990 letter from Foreign Minister Tariq Aziz accused Kuwait of stealing oil. On 17 July 1990 Saddam delivered a speech threatening "effective action."
The Jeddah negotiations (31 July to 1 August 1990) between Iraqi delegate Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri and Kuwaiti Crown Prince Sheikh Saad al-Abdullah broke down after one day. Iraq invaded the next morning.
The Glaspie meeting
US ambassador April Glaspie was summoned to meet Saddam on 25 July 1990. The Iraqi transcript records Glaspie saying:
"I have direct instruction from the President to seek better relations with Iraq. We have no opinion on the Arab-Arab conflicts, like your border disagreement with Kuwait."
Glaspie did warn Saddam against military action but emphasised hopes for diplomatic resolution. Saddam read the meeting as confirming US disinterest.
The invasion
At 02:00 on 2 August 1990 Iraqi forces crossed the Kuwait border at multiple points. The Republican Guard's Hammurabi, Medina, and Tawakalna divisions led. Kuwait City fell within 12 hours. The Dasman Palace fell after a firefight in which Sheikh Fahd al-Sabah, the Emir's brother, was killed.
Emir Jaber al-Sabah and Crown Prince Saad evacuated to Saudi Arabia. Around 350,000 expatriate workers fled overland. Foreign nationals including Westerners were held as "human shields" at strategic sites in Iraq through the autumn.
Annexation
Iraq initially announced a provisional government under "free Kuwaitis" (4 August 1990). On 8 August 1990 Saddam declared the "comprehensive eternal merger" of Kuwait with Iraq. On 28 August Kuwait was declared the "nineteenth province" of Iraq.
The UN response
Resolution 660 (2 August 1990). 14-0 with Yemen abstaining. Condemned the invasion and demanded immediate withdrawal.
Resolution 661 (6 August 1990). Imposed comprehensive sanctions: a total trade embargo on Iraq and Kuwait.
Resolution 662 (9 August 1990). Declared the annexation null and void.
Resolution 665 (25 August 1990). Authorised naval enforcement of the sanctions.
Resolution 678 (29 November 1990). Authorised "all necessary means" if Iraq had not withdrawn by 15 January 1991. The vote was 12-2 (Cuba and Yemen against, China abstaining). This was the legal basis for war.
The Coalition
President George H. W. Bush declared on 5 August 1990 that "this will not stand". Secretary of State James Baker and National Security Adviser Brent Scowcroft built the Coalition through August to November.
The Coalition eventually included 35 nations. The United States provided around 540,000 troops at peak. Britain contributed 53,000; France 18,000; Egypt 36,000; Syria 14,000; Saudi Arabia 100,000; Kuwait 7,000. Australia contributed two frigates and a supply ship. Japan and Germany contributed 13 billion and 6 billion US dollars respectively.
The Arab participation was secured at the Cairo Arab League summit (10 August 1990), which voted 12-3 to deploy Arab forces. Operation Desert Shield deployed forces to Saudi Arabia from 7 August 1990.
Last diplomacy
US-Iraq talks between Baker and Aziz at Geneva on 9 January 1991 lasted six hours and produced nothing. The Iraqi National Assembly voted on 14 January 1991 to authorise war. The UN deadline expired at midnight on 15 January 1991 New York time.
Timeline
| Date | Event | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| 25 July 1990 | Glaspie-Saddam meeting | Misread signal |
| 31 Jul-1 Aug 1990 | Jeddah talks fail | War decided |
| 2 Aug 1990 | Iraq invades Kuwait | Invasion |
| 2 Aug 1990 | UNSCR 660 | Condemnation |
| 6 Aug 1990 | UNSCR 661 | Sanctions |
| 7 Aug 1990 | Desert Shield begins | US deploys |
| 8 Aug 1990 | Annexation | Nineteenth province |
| 10 Aug 1990 | Arab League vote | Coalition Arabs |
| 9 Aug 1990 | UNSCR 662 | Annexation void |
| 29 Nov 1990 | UNSCR 678 | War authorised |
| 9 Jan 1991 | Geneva talks fail | Last diplomacy |
Historiography
Lawrence Freedman and Efraim Karsh (The Gulf Conflict 1990-1991, 1993) is the standard diplomatic history.
Michael Gordon and Bernard Trainor (The Generals' War, 1995) is the operational standard.
F. Gregory Gause III (The International Relations of the Persian Gulf, 2010) places the invasion in regional structural context.
How to read a source on this topic
Sources commonly include the Glaspie transcript, the 17 July 1990 Saddam speech, the UN Security Council resolution texts, Bush 41's 5 August "this will not stand" remarks, and images of Kuwaiti tanks burning in Kuwait City.
First, weigh the Glaspie meeting carefully. The "green light" interpretation is overstated by Saddam apologists; Glaspie did warn against military action. But she lacked clear authority to threaten consequences.
Second, note the Soviet position. Without Soviet acquiescence in the Security Council, Resolution 678 could not have passed. The end of the Cold War made this war possible.
Common exam traps
Treating the invasion as inevitable. Saddam considered limited options (taking Bubiyan and Warbah only, taking Rumaila only). The full invasion was a choice.
Forgetting the Arab Coalition members. Egypt and Syria participated; Jordan and the PLO sided with Iraq.
Confusing the resolutions. 660 condemns; 661 sanctions; 662 voids annexation; 678 authorises force.
In one sentence
The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990 was Saddam Hussein's calculated solution to post-Iran-war debts (80 billion US dollars), low oil prices, and territorial claims, enabled by the diplomatic ambiguity of the 25 July 1990 Glaspie meeting and met by an unprecedented post-Cold-War UN Security Council response (Resolutions 660, 661, 662, 678) and a 35-nation Coalition under President George H. W. Bush that would expel Iraq in Operation Desert Storm beginning 17 January 1991.
Past exam questions, worked
Real questions from past NESA papers on this dot point, with our answer explainer.
Practice (NESA)15 marksAssess the causes of the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990.Show worked answer →
Needs criteria, dated evidence, judgement on relative weight.
Thesis. The invasion was Saddam Hussein's calculated solution to multiple post-Iran-war problems. Debt, oil prices, and territorial claims were proximate causes; misreading of US signals was the trigger.
Debt. Iraq emerged from the Iran-Iraq War in August 1988 with around 80 billion US dollars in foreign debt, including around 14 billion to Kuwait. Kuwait refused to forgive the loans.
Oil prices. Iraq's reconstruction needed oil at around 25 US dollars per barrel. Kuwait and the UAE consistently exceeded their OPEC quotas through 1989-1990, driving prices to around 14 US dollars by July 1990. Saddam's 18 July 1990 letter to the Arab League accused Kuwait of "economic warfare."
Territorial claims. Iraq claimed Kuwait had stolen oil from the Rumaila field by slant drilling. Older claims that Kuwait was historically part of Iraqi Basra province were revived. Iraq demanded Bubiyan and Warbah islands.
April Glaspie meeting. US ambassador April Glaspie met Saddam on 25 July 1990. The transcript shows her saying the US had "no opinion on Arab-Arab conflicts." Saddam read this as a green light.
The invasion. Iraqi Republican Guard units crossed the border at 02:00 on 2 August 1990. Kuwait City fell within 12 hours. Emir Jaber al-Sabah fled to Saudi Arabia. Iraq announced annexation as the nineteenth province on 8 August.
Conclusion. Debt was decisive; oil prices and territorial claims provided justification; Glaspie ambiguity provided green light.
Practice (NESA)6 marksExplain how the United Nations responded to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990.Show worked answer →
A 6-mark "explain" needs three or four developed responses.
Resolution 660 (2 August 1990). Passed within hours of the invasion (14 votes to 0, Yemen abstaining). Condemned the invasion and demanded immediate Iraqi withdrawal. The speed reflected the post-Cold-War Soviet-American cooperation.
Resolution 661 (6 August 1990). Imposed comprehensive economic sanctions on Iraq: ban on imports from Iraq and Kuwait, ban on exports except for medical supplies and food in humanitarian circumstances.
Resolution 662 (9 August 1990). Declared the Iraqi annexation of Kuwait "null and void" and called on states not to recognise it. No country recognised the annexation.
Resolution 678 (29 November 1990). Authorised member states to use "all necessary means" to enforce the previous resolutions if Iraq did not withdraw by 15 January 1991. 12 votes to 2 (Cuba, Yemen against; China abstaining). This was the legal basis for Operation Desert Storm. Markers reward exact resolution numbers, the 15 January 1991 deadline, and the Soviet-US cooperation context.
Related dot points
- The role of Saddam Hussein, including his rise to power, the nature of the Baathist regime, the cult of personality, the repression of the Kurds and Shia, and his decisions for war in 1980, 1990 and 2003
A focused answer to the HSC Modern History Conflict in the Gulf dot point on Saddam Hussein. His rise through the Baath Party, the takeover of July 1979, the Baathist police state, the cult of personality, the al-Anfal genocide against the Kurds, the suppression of the 1991 Shia uprising, and the three wars that defined the regime.
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