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NSWAncient History← Ancient History syllabus

Section III (Personalities): Agrippina the Younger

65 dot points across 65 inquiry questions. Click any dot point for a focused answer with worked past exam questions where available.

How and why did Agrippina the Younger die, and what was the impact of her death?

Agrippina the Younger's death in AD 59, including the role of Poppaea Sabina, the collapsing boat at Baiae, the murder at the Lucrine villa, Nero's justification to the Senate, and the consequences for Nero's reign

Agrippina the Younger's death, AD 59. The decline from AD 55, the Junia Silana accusation, Poppaea's pressure, Anicetus's collapsing boat at Baiae, the Lucrine villa murder, the Agermus cover story, and the impact on Nero's reign.

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What was the historical context of Agrippina the Younger's life?

The historical, geographical, social, and political context of Agrippina the Younger, including the Julio-Claudian dynasty, the status of imperial women, and her family background as the daughter of Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Agrippina the Younger's context. The Julio-Claudian dynasty from Augustus to Nero, the political role of imperial women, the legacy of Livia and Antonia, and the prestige of Agrippina's descent from Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder.

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How have ancient and modern historians interpreted Agrippina the Younger?

Ancient and modern interpretations of Agrippina the Younger, including Tacitus, Suetonius, Cassius Dio, Pliny the Elder, the senatorial tradition, and modern reassessments by Barrett, Ginsburg, Wood, and others

The hostile senatorial tradition on Agrippina (Tacitus, Suetonius, Dio), her lost memoirs, the coinage and Sebasteion counter-evidence, and modern rereadings by Barrett, Ginsburg and the feminist historiography of Julio-Claudian women.

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What was Agrippina the Younger's role and influence as the wife of Claudius?

Agrippina the Younger's marriage to Claudius and her role as Augusta, including her political influence, public honours, adoption of Nero, and elimination of rivals

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Agrippina as the wife of Claudius. The senatorial decree legalising the uncle-niece marriage, the title Augusta in AD 50, the adoption of Nero, the betrothal of Nero to Octavia, the founding of Colonia Agrippinensis, and the elimination of rivals Lollia Paulina, Domitia Lepida, and Statilius Taurus.

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How did Agrippina the Younger rise to prominence before her marriage to Claudius?

Agrippina the Younger's background and rise to prominence, including her marriages to Cnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sallustius Passienus Crispus, her exile under Caligula, and her return under Claudius

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Agrippina's pre-Claudian career. Marriage to Domitius Ahenobarbus (AD 28), the birth of Nero (AD 37), the early honours under Caligula, the conspiracy of Lepidus (AD 39), exile to the Pontian Islands, marriage to Passienus Crispus, and return to favour under Claudius.

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What was Agrippina the Younger's role and influence as the mother of Nero?

Agrippina the Younger's role and influence as the mother of Nero, including the accession of AD 54, her early dominance in his reign, the rivalry with Burrus and Seneca, and the loss of influence by AD 55

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Agrippina as the mother of Nero. Her engineering of Nero's succession over Britannicus (AD 49 to 54), the death of Claudius (13 October AD 54), the accession, co-rule via coinage and the watchword 'Optima Mater', the death of Britannicus, and Agrippina's loss of influence.

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How did Agrippina the Younger exercise political influence through officials and the imperial household?

Agrippina the Younger's political influence and her use of officials, including the imperial freedmen (Pallas, Narcissus), the Praetorian Prefect Burrus, the tutor Seneca, and provincial appointments

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Agrippina's political network. Her alliance with Pallas, the destruction of rivals under Claudius, her appointments of Burrus and Seneca, the AD 54 tribunal incident, and the collapse of her power in AD 54 to 55.

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How did Agrippina the Younger construct and project her public image?

Agrippina the Younger's public image and propaganda, including her coinage, statuary, public titles, religious offices, and ideological representation as wife of Claudius and mother of Nero

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Agrippina's public image. The coin sequence AD 54 to 56 as a barometer of power, the Sebasteion relief at Aphrodisias, the Augusta title, the carpentum, the priesthood of Divus Claudius, Colonia Agrippinensis, and her lost memoirs cited by Tacitus.

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How did Agrippina the Younger influence religious policy and foreign affairs?

Agrippina the Younger's role in religion and foreign policy, including the deification of Claudius, the priesthood of the Divine Claudius, the founding of Colonia Agrippinensis, the British and Parthian-Armenian dimensions, and the Bosporan and client kingdom appointments

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Agrippina's religious and foreign policy role. Her flaminate of Divus Claudius from AD 54, the temple of the Deified Claudius on the Caelian, the colonial foundation at Cologne in AD 50, the British triumph and Caratacus, the Armenian succession and Mithridates of the Bosporus, and the limits of her control over external affairs.

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Why did Akhenaten transfer the capital to Akhetaten, and how did the function and layout of the new city express his political and religious aims?

The political and religious motives for the transfer of the capital to Akhetaten; the function and layout of Akhetaten

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Personalities dot point on Akhenaten's move to Akhetaten. The political motive of breaking the Theban Amun priesthood's power, the religious motive of a pure city for the Aten declared on the boundary stelae, and the function and layout of its temples, palaces and workmen's village.

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What do Amarna art and the role of Nefertiti reveal about Akhenaten's religious revolution and the possibility of a female co-regent?

artistic innovations and representations of the Aten, Akhenaten and the royal family; the role of Nefertiti and the issue of the co-regency

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Amarna art. The break from idealised convention, the Aten as a rayed disc, intimate royal family scenes, the disease-versus-theology debate over the Colossi of East Karnak, Nefertiti's prominence (the Berlin bust, the smiting scenes), and the Neferneferuaten co-regency debate.

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What was Akhenaten's family background, and how do his marriages, children and the co-regency debate shape our understanding of his early years?

Akhenaten's family background and early years, including his parents Amenhotep III and Queen Tiye, his birth name Amenhotep IV, the obscurity of his youth, the death of his elder brother Thutmose, his marriage to Nefertiti and the debate over her origins, the secondary wife Kiya, the six daughters, and the unresolved debate over a possible co-regency with Amenhotep III

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Akhenaten's background. Son of Amenhotep III and Tiye, originally Amenhotep IV, the obscurity of his youth, his brother Thutmose, marriage to Nefertiti and Kiya, the six daughters, and the unresolved co-regency debate.

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How did Akhenaten's reign end, and how have ancient and modern historians evaluated his impact and legacy?

The death of Akhenaten in his seventeenth regnal year, the mystery of his burial and the KV55 debate, the succession through Neferneferuaten, Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun, the counter-revolution and proscription of Akhenaten's memory, and ancient and modern evaluations of his reign, including the problems of evidence

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Akhenaten's death in regnal year 17, the KV55 mummy debate, the succession through Neferneferuaten, Smenkhkare and Tutankhamun, the Amarna counter-revolution and proscription, and the clash between ancient hostile memory and modern historians (Breasted, Freud, Redford, Reeves, Montserrat).

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How did Akhenaten manage Egypt's empire in Nubia and the Levant, and how far does the evidence support the charge that he neglected it?

Akhenaten's foreign policy towards Nubia and the Levant, including the evidence of the Amarna letters, the Year 12 Nubian campaign and durbar, and the debate over imperial neglect versus continuity

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Akhenaten's foreign policy towards Nubia and the Levant. Covers the empire he inherited, the Amarna letters (Great Kings and Levant vassals such as Rib-Hadda, Abdi-Heba and Aziru), the Habiru problem, the Year 12 Nubian campaign and durbar, and the neglect-versus-continuity debate.

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What geographic, religious and political context shaped Egypt on the eve of Akhenaten's reign, and what range of sources survives to reconstruct it?

The historical context for the study of Akhenaten: the geography of Egypt and its neighbours; the roles and images of Egyptian kingship, including divine kingship and the concept of Ma'at; the historical setting of the mid-18th Dynasty at its height under Amenhotep III; the wealth and power of the Amun priesthood at Thebes; and the nature, range and limitations of the sources for Akhenaten's reign

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Context dot point for Akhenaten. Egypt's geography and neighbours, the king's role as upholder of Ma'at, the wealthy empire of Amenhotep III, the power of the Amun priesthood at Thebes, and the talatat, boundary stelae, tombs, Amarna Letters and hostile later texts that form the evidence.

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What was the nature of Akhenaten's early building program at Thebes, and who were the key officials who rose with him?

The early building program of Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten at Thebes, including the Aten temples of East Karnak and the talatat blocks as an evidence source, and the officials of the court, including Ay, Horemheb, Nakht, Meryre, Huya and Bek, their roles, and the evidence of their rock-cut tombs at Amarna

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Akhenaten's early East Karnak building program and his court officials. The Gempaaten, Hwt-benben and the talatat technique; Ay, Horemheb, Nakht, Meryre, Huya and Bek; their Amarna tombs as evidence; and the verdicts of Redford, Smith, Aldred and Reeves.

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What was the nature and impact of Akhenaten's religious revolution?

The nature and impact of Akhenaten's religious policies, including the elevation of the Aten, the change of name from Amenhotep IV to Akhenaten, the nature of Atenism and the monotheism debate, the suppression of the cult of Amun, and the impact on traditional religious life

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Personalities dot point on Akhenaten's religious policies. The elevation of the Aten, the name change from Amenhotep IV, Atenism and the monotheism debate (Assmann, Hornung), the suppression of Amun's cult, and the impact on ordinary religious life.

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What was Alexander's background and upbringing, and how did he accede to the Macedonian throne in 336 BC and secure his power against rivals at home and in Greece?

Alexander the Great's background, accession and securing of power: his birth in 356 BC to Philip II of Macedon and Olympias of Epirus; his education by Aristotle at Mieza and early promise (the taming of Bucephalus, the regency at 16, and the command of the Companion cavalry at Chaeronea in 338 BC); the estrangement from Philip (the Pixodarus affair and Philip's marriage to Cleopatra-Eurydice); the assassination of Philip II in 336 BC and the debated question of Alexander's and Olympias' complicity; and the accession and ruthless securing of power in 336 to 335 BC, including the elimination of Attalus, Amyntas and Cleopatra-Eurydice, and the destruction of Thebes

A focused HSC Ancient History Personalities answer on Alexander the Great's background, accession and securing of power - born 356 BC to Philip II and Olympias, taught by Aristotle at Mieza, Chaeronea 338 BC, Philip's murder 336 BC, the purge of rivals, and Thebes destroyed 335 BC.

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How did the death of Hephaestion, Alexander's own death at Babylon in 323 BC and the succession crisis that followed shape the fate of his empire, and how have ancient and modern historians explained his death and the collapse of his settlement?

The last year of Alexander the Great: the death of Hephaestion in 324 BC and Alexander's grief; the final plans, including the Arabian expedition and the 'last plans'; his death at Babylon in June 323 BC aged 32 and the debate over its cause (fever versus the poisoning tradition); the succession crisis ('to the strongest' and the ring of Perdiccas); the settlement at Babylon under Philip III Arrhidaeus and the infant Alexander IV; the outbreak of the Wars of the Diadochi and the fragmentation of the empire; and the destruction of the royal family

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Alexander the Great's death - Hephaestion's death in 324 BC and Alexander's grief, the last plans and Arabian expedition, his death at Babylon in June 323 BC aged 32, the natural-causes versus poisoning debate, the succession crisis, and the Wars of the Diadochi.

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How did Alexander's time in Egypt and his campaigns in the far east of the Persian empire shape his kingship, his image and his relationship with the Macedonians, and how do the ancient sources let us reconstruct them?

Alexander in Egypt 332 to 331 BC (welcomed as liberator, the foundation of Alexandria, the pilgrimage to the oracle of Ammon at Siwah and the son of Zeus-Ammon claim), the settlement of the empire's administration, the campaigns in Bactria and Sogdiana 329 to 327 BC (Spitamenes, the Sogdian Rock, guerrilla war), the marriage to Roxane, the founding of cities as garrisons and Hellenising centres, and the growing tensions with the Macedonians, handled through the critical use of Arrian, Plutarch and Curtius

Alexander in Egypt 332 to 331 BC and the eastern campaigns - welcomed as liberator, the founding of Alexandria, the Siwah oracle and the son of Zeus-Ammon claim, the settlement of the empire, the guerrilla war in Bactria and Sogdiana against Spitamenes, the Sogdian Rock, the marriage to Roxane, and rising Macedonian tensions.

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How have ancient and modern historians evaluated Alexander the Great, and how do the problems of the surviving evidence shape that debate?

The ancient and modern evaluation of Alexander the Great: the problem of evidence that no contemporary narrative survives and that every surviving account descends from later writers using lost sources (Arrian from Ptolemy and Aristobulus; the vulgate from Cleitarchus; the propaganda of Callisthenes and the hostile Peripatetic tradition); the ancient images of the invincible hero against the drunken tyrant; the modern debate between the romantic idealising tradition of W.W. Tarn's chivalrous visionary with a dream of the 'unity of mankind' and the revisionist tradition of Ernst Badian and Brian Bosworth's ruthless, paranoid autocrat; the more recent balanced and reception scholarship; and the assessment of his achievement and legacy

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on evaluating Alexander the Great - why no contemporary narrative survives, how Arrian, the Cleitarchan vulgate, Callisthenes' propaganda and the hostile Peripatetic tradition shape the record, and the modern clash between Tarn's visionary and the ruthless autocrat of Badian and Bosworth.

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What kind of kingdom produced Alexander the Great, what empire did he set out to attack, and what range of much later sources survives to reconstruct his reign?

The historical context for the study of Alexander the Great: the geography and situation of the kingdom of Macedon and the Argead monarchy; the transformation of Macedon under Philip II through his army reforms and the sarissa phalanx; the unification of Greece by force at Chaeronea and through the League of Corinth in 337 BC and the planned invasion of Persia; the Achaemenid Persian empire that Alexander would attack; and the nature, range and limitations of the sources, given that no contemporary narrative survives and our accounts (the vulgate of Diodorus, Curtius Rufus and Justin, Arrian, and Plutarch) are all centuries later

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History context for Alexander the Great - Macedon transformed by Philip II, the sarissa phalanx and the League of Corinth of 337 BC, the Achaemenid empire he set out to attack, and the source problem, since no contemporary narrative survives, only the later vulgate of Diodorus, Curtius and Justin set against Arrian.

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How did the campaign in India and the long march home expose the limits and the human cost of Alexander's conquests, and how far can Arrian and the vulgate be trusted to reconstruct them?

Alexander the Great in India and the return: the invasion of India from 327 BC; the battle of the Hydaspes against Porus in 326 BC, the war elephants, the death of Bucephalus and the founding of Bucephala; the mutiny of the army at the Hyphasis in 326 BC; the descent of the Indus and the Mallian wound; the disastrous march through the Gedrosian desert in 325 BC and the voyage of Nearchus' fleet; the return to the heartland; and the limits of conquest and the cost to the army, assessed through Arrian (and Nearchus) against the vulgate tradition

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Alexander in India and the return - the Hydaspes against Porus (326 BC) and the death of Bucephalus, the Hyphasis mutiny, the descent of the Indus, and the deadly Gedrosian march of 325 BC, weighing Arrian and Nearchus against the vulgate.

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How did Alexander's kingship evolve as he took over the Persian empire, and how far did his adoption of Persian custom, his treatment of the Macedonians and his claim to divine honours amount to a coherent policy?

The evolution of Alexander the Great's kingship: the adoption of Persian dress and court ceremonial; the attempt to introduce proskynesis in 327 BC and Callisthenes' resistance; the debate over a policy of fusion; the tensions with the Macedonians (the murder of Cleitus the Black, the Philotas affair and the execution of Parmenio, the Pages' Conspiracy); the mass marriages at Susa in 324 BC; the integration of Persians into the army; the Opis mutiny and the banquet of reconciliation; and Alexander's deification and divine honours, assessed through Arrian, Plutarch and Curtius

A focused HSC Ancient History answer on the evolution of Alexander's kingship - Persian dress and court ceremonial, the proskynesis attempt of 327 BC, the tensions with the Macedonians (Cleitus, Philotas, Parmenio, the Pages), the Susa marriages and the Opis mutiny, and the Tarn versus Badian debate over a policy of fusion.

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How did Alexander conquer the Persian empire between 334 and 330 BC, and how far can we reconstruct that conquest from Arrian and the vulgate tradition?

The conquest of the Persian empire: the invasion of Asia in 334 BC (the crossing of the Hellespont and the visit to Troy); the three great set-piece battles of Granicus (334 BC), Issus (333 BC) and Gaugamela (331 BC); the sieges of Tyre and Gaza (332 BC); the seizure of the sinews of empire at Sardis, Babylon, Susa and Persepolis (burned 330 BC); the pursuit and death of Darius III (330 BC); Alexander's generalship; and the nature of the sources, especially Arrian's account drawn from Ptolemy against the vulgate tradition

How Alexander destroyed the Persian empire, 334 to 330 BC - the crossing into Asia and Troy, the battles of Granicus, Issus and Gaugamela, the sieges of Tyre and Gaza, the seizure of Babylon, Susa and Persepolis, and the death of Darius III, weighed through Arrian and the vulgate tradition.

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What was Julius Caesar's family background, and how did his early career shape his later rise?

Caesar's family background, including the political position of the gens Julia and its connections to Marius and Cinna; his early years, including his defiance of Sulla; his military start and the corona civica; his capture by pirates; and his early career through the cursus honorum to the propraetorship of Further Spain in 61 BC

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Personalities dot point on Julius Caesar's family background and early career. The patrician gens Julia, the Marian and Cinnan connections, defying Sulla's proscriptions, the corona civica, capture by pirates, and the cursus honorum from quaestor (69 BC) to propraetor of Further Spain (61 BC).

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How did the breakdown of the First Triumvirate lead to civil war in 49 BC, and how did Caesar defeat Pompey and the Pompeians to become master of the Roman world?

Caesar's civil war and the defeat of Pompey: the breakdown of the First Triumvirate following the deaths of Julia (54 BC) and Crassus at Carrhae (53 BC), and Pompey's drift to the optimates and sole consulship in 52 BC; the political crisis of 50-49 BC over Caesar's command and his demand to stand for the consulship in absentia; the crossing of the Rubicon (10 January 49 BC) and the outbreak of civil war; the campaigns - the swift seizure of Italy, Spain (Ilerda), the decisive defeat of Pompey at Pharsalus (48 BC) and Pompey's murder in Egypt; the Alexandrian War and Cleopatra; Zela (47 BC); and the defeat of the remaining Pompeians at Thapsus (46 BC) and Munda (45 BC)

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Civil War dot point for Julius Caesar. The Triumvirate's collapse after Julia and Crassus died, the 50-49 BC crisis over Caesar's command, the Rubicon, and the campaigns from Ilerda and Pharsalus to Egypt, Zela, Thapsus and Munda.

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How did Caesar accumulate power between 49 and 44 BC, what did he do with it as dictator, and how did his reforms and honours turn the Roman elite against him?

Caesar's dictatorship and reforms: the escalating grants of power from the first dictatorship in 49 BC to dictator perpetuo in February 44 BC; the reforms - the Julian calendar (46 BC), debt and land legislation, colonisation and veteran settlement, the extension of citizenship, the enlargement of the Senate, public works, and the curbing of the corn dole; clementia as a policy; and the accumulation of honours and the monarchy question (the diadem, the Lupercalia offer of 44 BC, and divine honours), which set the stage for his assassination

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dictatorship and reforms dot point for Julius Caesar. His escalating powers from the 49 BC dictatorship to dictator perpetuo in 44 BC, the reforms (Julian calendar, debt and land laws, colonies, citizenship, the enlarged Senate, public works, the corn dole), clementia as policy, and the honours and monarchy question that set up the assassination.

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How did Caesar form the First Triumvirate and use his consulship of 59 BC to advance his own and his allies' interests?

the formation of the First Triumvirate in 60 BC, cemented by the marriage of Pompey to Caesar's daughter Julia; Caesar's consulship of 59 BC, including the agrarian law for Pompey's veterans, the ratification of Pompey's eastern settlement, tax relief for Crassus's publicani, and the lex Vatinia; and the securing of allies through the tribune Clodius and the marriage to Calpurnia

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Caesar's First Triumvirate and consulship of 59 BC. The 60 BC pact with Pompey and Crassus, sealed by Julia's marriage; the agrarian law forced past Bibulus and Cato; Pompey's ratified eastern settlement; Crassus's tax relief; the lex Vatinia; and the allies Clodius and Calpurnia.

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What crisis in Roman politics and society produced Julius Caesar, and what range of ancient sources do we have for studying his career?

The historical context of Caesar's career: the crisis of the late Roman Republic, including the legacy of the Gracchi, Marius and Sulla, the optimates versus populares divide, the rise of army-backed dynasts such as Pompey and Crassus, senatorial politics, and the mos maiorum under strain; and the nature and range of the ancient sources available for studying Caesar, including his own Commentarii, Cicero's letters and speeches, and the later accounts of Suetonius, Plutarch, Appian and Cassius Dio

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Context for Julius Caesar - the crisis of the late Republic from the Gracchi through Marius and Sulla, the optimates-populares divide, the rise of army-backed dynasts, and the range and limits of the ancient sources - Caesar's own Commentarii, Cicero, Suetonius, Plutarch, Appian and Cassius Dio.

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How did Caesar shape his own image, how did ancient and modern writers interpret him, and was he a constructive reformer or an opportunist who destroyed the Republic?

The images, interpretations and evaluation of Julius Caesar: the problem of the sources, including Caesar's own Commentarii as self-fashioning and the hostile and favourable ancient traditions (Cicero, Sallust, Suetonius, Plutarch, Appian, Cassius Dio); Caesar's self-image in coinage, clementia and the cult of Divus Iulius; ancient assessments of his career; and the modern historiographical debate over whether Caesar was a constructive reformer or an opportunistic destroyer of the Republic, from the great-man tradition of Mommsen and Gelzer to the revisionist prosopography of Syme, Meier's crisis without alternative, and Goldsworthy

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Caesar's images, interpretations and evaluation - the problem of the sources from his own self-fashioning Commentarii to the later tradition, his self-image in coinage, clementia and the cult of Divus Iulius, ancient assessments, and the modern debate from Mommsen and Gelzer to Syme, Meier and Goldsworthy.

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How did the conquest of Gaul (58-50 BC) transform Caesar's wealth, army and political position, and how far can his own account of it be trusted?

The conquest of Gaul (58-50 BC): the campaigns against the Helvetii and Ariovistus (58 BC), the Belgae (57 BC), the Veneti and the naval war (56 BC), the two expeditions to Britain (55, 54 BC), the crossing of the Rhine, and the great revolt of Vercingetorix crushed at the siege of Alesia (52 BC); the significance of the conquest for Caesar's wealth and his veteran army; the Commentarii de Bello Gallico as both the main source and a work of political self-promotion

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Caesar's Gallic Wars, 58-50 BC. Covers the Helvetii, Ariovistus, the Belgae, the Veneti naval war, the British expeditions, the Rhine crossings and Vercingetorix's revolt crushed at Alesia, the wealth and loyal army the war gave Caesar, and the Commentarii as source and propaganda.

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Why did the conspirators assassinate Caesar on the Ides of March 44 BC, and why did the killing destroy the Liberators rather than restore the Republic?

The assassination of Caesar and its aftermath: the conspiracy of the Liberators (Marcus Brutus, Cassius and Decimus Brutus) and the mixture of ideological and personal motives that drew more than sixty senators into it; the assassination in the Curia of Pompey on 15 March 44 BC; the immediate aftermath - the Senate's amnesty debate, the reading of Caesar's will, Antony's funeral oration and the fury of the mob; the failure of the Liberators; the rise of Octavian, the formation of the Second Triumvirate in 43 BC and the proscriptions; the deification of Caesar and the sidus Iulium; and the road to the defeat of Brutus and Cassius at Philippi in 42 BC

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Caesar's death and aftermath - the Liberators and their motives, the assassination in the Curia of Pompey on 15 March 44 BC, the amnesty debate, Caesar's will and Antony's funeral oration, the failure of the Liberators, Octavian's rise, the Second Triumvirate and proscriptions of 43 BC, Caesar's deification and Philippi in 42 BC.

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What was the purpose and significance of Hatshepsut's building program?

Hatshepsut's building program, including the mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri, the obelisks at Karnak, the Speos Artemidos, and the political and religious purposes of the construction projects

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Hatshepsut's building program. The Deir el-Bahri mortuary temple (Djeser-Djeseru) designed by Senenmut, the obelisks at Karnak, the Red Chapel, the Speos Artemidos, and the purpose of construction as religious legitimation and political display.

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How did Hatshepsut die and what was the proscription under Thutmose III?

The death of Hatshepsut, the identification of her mummy (KV 60), and the proscription (damnatio memoriae) by Thutmose III, including the timing, scope, and proposed motivations

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Hatshepsut's death and proscription. The KV 60 mummy identification (2007), the date of her death around 1458 BC, the later proscription by Thutmose III (after year 42), the scope and pattern of the damnatio memoriae, and the historiographical debate over motivation.

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What was Hatshepsut's foreign policy and trade activity?

Hatshepsut's foreign policy and trade, including the expedition to Punt, the campaigns in Nubia, the management of Sinai mining, and the wider question of whether her reign was militarily peaceful

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Hatshepsut's foreign policy. The Punt expedition (year 9) recorded at Deir el-Bahri, the Nubian campaigns, Sinai turquoise mining at Serabit el-Khadim, and the debate over whether the reign was militarily quiet or actively expansionist.

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What was the historical context of Hatshepsut's reign?

The historical context and family background of Hatshepsut, including the early 18th Dynasty, the reigns of Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, and Thutmose II, and the political and religious landscape of New Kingdom Egypt

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Hatshepsut's historical context. The early 18th Dynasty, the expulsion of the Hyksos, the reigns of Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, and Thutmose I, the rise of Theban kingship, and the political role of the Great Royal Wife in Hatshepsut's lineage.

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How has Hatshepsut been interpreted by ancient and modern historians?

The historiography and modern interpretations of Hatshepsut, including the ancient sources, the early Egyptologists (Naville, Maspero), the 'usurper queen' view, and the modern revisions of Tyldesley, Dorman, and Roehrig

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Hatshepsut historiography. The Manethonic tradition, Naville's 1890s Deir el-Bahri excavations, the early "usurper queen" view, and the modern revisions by Tyldesley, Dorman, and Roehrig that recover Hatshepsut as a legitimate and effective pharaoh.

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Who were the key officials of Hatshepsut's court?

The officials of Hatshepsut's court, including Senenmut, Hapuseneb, Nehesi, Ineni, Useramen, and Senimen, their roles and influence, and their relationship to Hatshepsut

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Hatshepsut's officials. Senenmut's 90-plus titles and disputed relationship with the queen, Hapuseneb as high priest of Amun, Nehesi's Punt expedition, Djehuty's treasury role, Ineni's autobiography, Useramen the vizier, and Dorman/Tyldesley's verdicts.

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What was Hatshepsut's religious policy and how did it legitimise her reign?

Hatshepsut's religious policy and propaganda, including the cult of Amun-Re, the divine birth narrative, the office of God's Wife of Amun, the Opet and Valley festivals, and the role of religious legitimation

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Hatshepsut's religious policy. The cult of Amun-Re, the Karnak obelisks and Red Chapel, the oracle and divine birth, the Opet festival, the Speos Artemidos restoration claim, and the verdicts of Tyldesley and Roehrig.

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How and why did Hatshepsut rise from regent to pharaoh?

Hatshepsut's rise from Great Royal Wife to regent to pharaoh, including the political and religious basis of her authority, the chronology of her coronation, and the iconographic shift to male royal regalia

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Hatshepsut's rise to power. From Great Royal Wife of Thutmose II to regent for Thutmose III, then to co-ruler and pharaoh by around year 7 of his reign, with the divine birth and coronation iconography and the verdicts of Tyldesley and Roehrig.

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How did the first years of the Peloponnesian War, the plague of Athens and Pericles' death shape his reputation, and how have ancient and modern historians evaluated his legacy?

The final years of Pericles: the opening of the Peloponnesian War and the defensive strategy under strain; the plague of Athens 430 to 429 BC and its social, moral and personal effects, including the deaths of his legitimate sons; his deposition, fine and re-election as strategos; the citizenship grant to his son by Aspasia; his death in 429 BC; the failure of his strategy under his successors; and ancient and modern evaluations of the Periclean Age

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Pericles' death and legacy - his war strategy under strain, the plague of Athens 430 to 429 BC in Thucydides' account, the deaths of his sons, his deposition and re-election, the grant to Pericles the Younger, his death in 429 BC, and the debated Periclean Age.

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How have ancient and modern historians evaluated Pericles, and how do the problems of the surviving evidence shape that debate?

The ancient and modern evaluation of Pericles: the dominant pro-Periclean tradition of Thucydides against the hostile contemporary comedy of Cratinus and Aristophanes and the much later anecdotal Plutarch; ancient assessments of his role; the modern debate between Pericles as the visionary architect of Athenian democracy and greatness and Pericles as a populist demagogue and imperialist whose policies led to the Peloponnesian War and the plague; the 'Periclean Age' as a construct; and the problems of evidence

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on evaluating Pericles - the dominant pro-Periclean tradition of Thucydides against hostile contemporary comedy and the much later Plutarch, and the modern clash between Pericles as visionary architect of democracy and Pericles as populist demagogue whose imperialism led to catastrophe.

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What was Pericles' family background, and how did his Alcmaeonid inheritance and early career shape his rise to political leadership at Athens?

Pericles' family background and rise to prominence, including his birth c. 495 BC into the Alcmaeonid family through his mother Agariste, niece of the reformer Cleisthenes, and his father Xanthippus, victor of Mycale; the inherited curse of the Alcmaeonids; his early career as choregos for Aeschylus' Persae in 472 BC; his alliance with Ephialtes and the attack on the Areopagus in 462/1 BC; the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC; the assassination of Ephialtes; and his emergence as leader

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Personalities dot point on Pericles' family background and rise. Born c. 495 BC into the Alcmaeonid family, mother Agariste and father Xanthippus, the inherited curse, choregos for Aeschylus in 472 BC, the alliance with Ephialtes against the Areopagus, and his emergence as leader.

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How did Pericles' foreign policy and grand strategy shape the outbreak and early conduct of the Peloponnesian War, and how do ancient and modern historians judge his responsibility for it?

The foreign policy of Pericles and the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War: the First Peloponnesian War and the Thirty Years' Peace of 446/5 BC; the grievances over Corcyra (433 BC), Potidaea (432 BC) and above all the Megarian Decree; Pericles' refusal to compromise and his defensive grand strategy of abandoning Attica and relying on the Long Walls and the fleet; and ancient and modern assessments of whether his policy caused the war

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Pericles dot point on foreign policy and the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War - the Thirty Years' Peace of 446/5 BC, the grievances over Corcyra, Potidaea and the Megarian Decree, Pericles' no-concession stance and defensive Long Walls strategy, and whether his policy caused the war.

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What kind of Athens produced Pericles, and what range of ancient sources survives to reconstruct his world and career?

The historical context for the study of Pericles: the geography and situation of Athens in the fifth century BC; post-Persian-War Athens and the foundation of the Delian League; the transformation of the League into an Athenian empire; the rise of radical democracy through the reforms of Ephialtes and Pericles; and the nature, range and limitations of the sources, including Thucydides, Plutarch's Life of Pericles, Aristotle's Athenaion Politeia, Old Comedy, and the tribute and building inscriptions

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Context for Pericles - post-Persian-War Athens, the Delian League and its turn into empire, the rise of radical democracy, and the range and limits of the sources - Thucydides and his admiration, Plutarch's late Life, Aristotle, hostile comedy and the tribute and building inscriptions.

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What were Pericles' political reforms, and did they make him the leader or the servant of Athens's radical democracy?

Pericles' political reforms and radical democracy: state pay for jurors and other public office (misthophoria) opening participation to poorer citizens; the citizenship law of 451/450 BC; the completion of the Ephialtic reduction of the Areopagus; his repeated election as strategos; and the ancient debate over whether he led or followed the demos

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Personalities dot point on Pericles' political reforms - state pay for jurors and officeholders (misthophoria), the 451/450 BC citizenship law, completing Ephialtes' reduction of the Areopagus, his run of strategoi elections, and whether he led or followed the demos.

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How did Pericles transform the Delian League into the Athenian empire, what were the aims and instruments of his imperial policy, and how have ancient and modern historians judged that policy given the problems of the evidence?

The career and policies of Pericles in the context of the Athenian empire: the transformation of the Delian League into empire; the transfer of the treasury from Delos to Athens in 454 BC; tribute (phoros) and the tribute quota lists as epigraphic evidence; the use of imperial revenue for the building program; the coercion of allies, cleruchies and the coinage decree; the Congress Decree and the panhellenic claim; and ancient and modern interpretations of Athenian imperialism

How Pericles turned the Delian League into the Athenian empire - the 454 BC treasury transfer, the phoros and the quota-list inscriptions, cleruchies and the coinage decree, imperial money for the building program, the coercion of Euboea and Samos, and the benevolent-hegemony versus exploitation debate of Ste Croix and Meiggs.

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How did Pericles use the Acropolis building program as an instrument of employment, imperial propaganda and personal political power, and how did his enemies use it and his associates against him?

Pericles and the Acropolis building program from 447 BC: the Parthenon (447-432 BC; Ictinus and Callicrates; Phidias and the chryselephantine Athena Parthenos), the Propylaea (437-432 BC; Mnesicles), the Erechtheion and the Temple of Athena Nike; Phidias as general overseer; the controversy over funding the program from imperial tribute (Plutarch, Pericles 12-14) and the political attack led by Thucydides, son of Melesias; the program as employment, imperial propaganda and the visual expression of Athenian imperial democracy; and the trials of Phidias, Anaxagoras and Aspasia as attacks on Pericles

Pericles and the Acropolis building program from 447 BC - the Parthenon, Propylaea, Erechtheion and Temple of Athena Nike, Phidias as overseer, the tribute-funding controversy (Plutarch, Pericles 12-14), the program as employment and imperial propaganda, and the trials of Phidias, Anaxagoras and Aspasia as attacks on Pericles.

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How did Qin Shi Huangdi and his chancellor Li Si use Legalist ideas and a new commandery-county bureaucracy to replace the old feudal order with a centralised state, and how far should the Confucian tradition's condemnation of that state, above all the burning of the books and the burying of the scholars, be trusted?

The administration and Legalist reforms of Qin Shi Huangdi, including the abolition of the feudal fiefs and the commandery-county (jun-xian) system of centralised bureaucracy, Legalism (fa) as state ideology under Han Feizi and Li Si with its primacy of law, reward and punishment over Confucian virtue, the burning of the books in 213 BC and the alleged burying of the scholars in 212 BC, the relocation of the aristocracy to Xianyang, the census, mutual-responsibility groups and universal law, and the historiographical contrast between Confucian condemnation and modern reassessment

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Qin Shi Huangdi's administration. The abolition of the feudal fiefs, the commandery-county (jun-xian) system, Legalism under Han Feizi and Li Si, the 213 BC book burning and the alleged 212 BC burying of the scholars, and Confucian condemnation versus modern reassessment.

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What was Qin Shi Huangdi's background, and how did Ying Zheng rise from a hostage prince's son at Handan to King of Qin in personal control of the Legalist court?

Qin Shi Huangdi's background and rise to King of Qin, including his birth as Ying Zheng in 259 BC at Handan, the merchant Lu Buwei and the paternity question in Sima Qian's Shiji, his accession as King of Qin in 246 BC aged about thirteen with Lu Buwei as regent and chancellor, the Lao Ai revolt of 238 BC and its suppression, the fall of Lu Buwei, the young king's assumption of personal control, and the roles of Li Si and the Legalist court

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Qin Shi Huangdi's background - born Ying Zheng in 259 BC at Handan, the Lu Buwei paternity story in Sima Qian's Shiji and its reliability, accession as King of Qin in 246 BC aged about thirteen, the Lao Ai revolt of 238 BC, the fall of Lu Buwei, and the rise of Li Si.

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How have ancient and modern historians evaluated Qin Shi Huangdi, and what problems of evidence shape that debate?

An evaluation of Qin Shi Huangdi's reign and legacy: the problem that almost the entire literary tradition descends from Sima Qian's Han-era Shiji; the hostile-successor and Confucian condemnation of the First Emperor as tyrant and book-burner against the archaeological record; the modern reassessment of him as founder of a unified China whose institutions later dynasties inherited; and the caution offered by ideological readings such as the Mao-era rehabilitation

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on evaluating Qin Shi Huangdi - how the entire literary tradition descends from Sima Qian's Han-era Shiji, the Confucian tyrant and book-burner image against the archaeological record, and the modern reassessment of the First Emperor as founder of a unified China (Bodde, Lewis, Portal).

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What geographical and historical context shaped the state of Qin and the world Ying Zheng was born into, and what sources survive to reconstruct it?

The historical and geographical context for the study of Qin Shi Huangdi: the Warring States period and the rise of the western state of Qin; the Legalist reforms of Shang Yang under Duke Xiao; the world Ying Zheng was born into in 259 BC; an overview of the reign from king of Qin in 246 BC to First Emperor 221 to 210 BC; and the nature, range and limitations of the sources, from Sima Qian's Shiji to the archaeology of the tomb complex

A greenfield answer to the HSC Ancient History context dot point for Qin Shi Huangdi - the Warring States period, the western state of Qin and Shang Yang's Legalist reforms, the world Ying Zheng was born into in 259 BC, the reign in outline, and the sources from Sima Qian's Han-era Shiji to the terracotta army and Qin bamboo slips.

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How did Qin Shi Huangdi use standardisation and vast public works to weld the conquered Warring States into a single empire, and how far can the sources be trusted on their achievement and their cost?

Qin Shi Huangdi's standardisation and public works: the standardisation of the script (small seal script under Li Si), weights, measures, the round banliang coinage and cart axle-widths; the great public works, including the network of imperial highways and the 'straight road' (zhidao), the Lingqu canal, the linking of the northern walls into the 'Great Wall' under Meng Tian, and the Epang Palace; and the human cost of conscript and convict labour, handled through the archaeological evidence and a critical reading of Sima Qian

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Qin Shi Huangdi's standardisation and public works - the small seal script under Li Si, unified weights, measures and the banliang coin, cart-gauges, the imperial highways and straight road, the Lingqu canal, the Great Wall under Meng Tian, and the human cost.

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How did Qin Shi Huangdi's search for immortality end, how was his death concealed, and how have ancient and modern historians explained the rapid collapse of his dynasty?

The First Emperor's search for immortality and his death: the imperial tours and the stone inscriptions, including the feng and shan sacrifices at Mount Tai and the Langya inscription; the fangshi and Xu Fu's expeditions to find the isles of the immortals; the immortality elixirs and the mercury irony; the assassination attempts and growing paranoia; the death at Shaqiu in 210 BC and its concealment by Zhao Gao and Li Si; the forged succession and the rapid collapse of the Qin by 207 to 206 BC; and the historiography of Sima Qian and the hostile-successor tradition

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Qin Shi Huangdi's obsession with immortality - the imperial tours and stone inscriptions, the fangshi and Xu Fu's sea expeditions, the mercury elixirs, his paranoia and death at Shaqiu in 210 BC, the concealment by Zhao Gao and Li Si, and the fall of the Qin by 207 to 206 BC.

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What does the Mount Li necropolis, its terracotta army and its unexcavated tomb reveal about Qin Shi Huangdi's beliefs, imperial ideology and the organisation of his state, and how does this archaeological evidence corroborate and correct the written account of Sima Qian?

The terracotta army and the tomb of Qin Shi Huangdi: the Mount Li necropolis begun c. 246 BC and escalating after the unification of 221 BC; the 1974 discovery near Xi'an; the three main pits and the estimated 8,000 figures; the individualised faces, functional bronze weapons, chariots, assembly-line production and workshop marks; the unexcavated tomb-mound and Sima Qian's description of the mercury rivers; and what the site reveals about afterlife belief, imperial ideology and Qin organisation, including the way the archaeology both corroborates and corrects the written sources

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Personalities dot point on Qin Shi Huangdi's Mount Li necropolis - the tomb begun c. 246 BC, the 1974 discovery of the terracotta army near Xi'an, the three pits and the estimated 8,000 figures, and what the site reveals about afterlife belief, imperial ideology and Qin organisation.

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How did the King of Qin conquer the six rival warring states between 230 and 221 BC, and why did he mark that unification by inventing the new title Shi Huangdi?

Qin Shi Huangdi and the unification of China in 221 BC: the conquest of the six warring states in sequence (Han 230, Zhao 228, Wei 225, Chu 223, Yan 222, Qi 221 BC); the strategy of diplomacy, bribery and overwhelming force directed by Li Si, Wei Liao and the generals Wang Jian and Wang Ben; the failed assassination attempt by Jing Ke in 227 BC; the proclamation of the new imperial title Shi Huangdi and its ideological meaning; and the scale of the achievement, assessed through the critical use of Sima Qian and the archaeological record

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Qin's unification of China. The conquest of the six warring states in sequence from Han in 230 BC to Qi in 221 BC, the strategy of bribery and overwhelming force under Li Si and Wang Jian, the failed assassination by Jing Ke in 227 BC, and the new title Shi Huangdi.

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How did Xerxes I govern the Persian Empire, and how far did his administration continue the system built by Darius I?

The administration of the empire under Xerxes: his continuation of Darius I's satrapy system, tribute and the Royal Road; the ideology of kingship expressed in his royal inscriptions (King of Kings, the favour of Ahuramazda, order against the Lie); the court at Persepolis; royal women and eunuchs; and the continuity-versus-change and 'decline' debate, drawing on the Persepolis tablets, royal inscriptions and Herodotus

How Xerxes governed the empire - the satrapy system, tribute and Royal Road inherited from Darius I, the King of Kings ideology of the royal inscriptions, the Persepolis court and royal women read critically, and the continuity-versus-decline debate, via the Persepolis tablets and Herodotus.

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How did Xerxes I use the building program at Persepolis to express Achaemenid kingship and the ideology of a unified empire?

Xerxes and the building program at Persepolis: his completion of the Apadana begun by Darius I, the Gate of All Nations (inscription XPa), the Hundred-Column Throne Hall, the Palace of Xerxes (Hadish) and the Tripylon, the Apadana tribute-bearer reliefs as imperial ideology, his continued building at Susa, and the propaganda function of the royal building inscriptions and reliefs

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Personalities dot point on Xerxes' building program at Persepolis: his completion of the Apadana, the Gate of All Nations (XPa), the Hundred-Column Throne Hall, the Palace of Xerxes (Hadish) and the Tripylon, the tribute reliefs as imperial ideology, and his building at Susa.

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How did Xerxes' reign end, and how have ancient and modern historians evaluated his reign and image?

The last years and the assassination of Xerxes in 465 BC, the court conspiracy of Artabanus the chiliarch, the accession of Artaxerxes I, an assessment of the reign and the empire's condition, and the problem of evidence: the hostile Greek tradition, Persian royal self-presentation, and modern revisionist interpretations

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Xerxes' last years and assassination in 465 BC, the court conspiracy of Artabanus the chiliarch and the accession of Artaxerxes I, an assessment of the reign, and the clash between the hostile Greek tradition, Persian royal self-presentation and modern revisionist historians (Briant, Kuhrt, Sancisi-Weerdenburg, Wiesehofer).

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What were Xerxes' family background and lineage, and how did the succession dispute with Artobazanes and the death of Darius I in 486 BC shape his accession?

Xerxes' background, family and accession, including his descent from Darius I and Atossa (daughter of Cyrus the Great), his upbringing as crown prince, the legitimacy dispute with his elder half-brother Artobazanes reported by Herodotus (7.2-3), the death of Darius I in 486 BC, the smooth accession, and the early consolidation of his reign against the revolts in Egypt and Babylon

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Xerxes' background: son of Darius I and Atossa, daughter of Cyrus the Great; the legitimacy dispute with his elder half-brother Artobazanes (Herodotus 7.2-3); upbringing as crown prince; the smooth accession on Darius' death in 486 BC; and early consolidation, read through Herodotus and Persian inscriptions.

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What geographic, political and ideological context shaped the Achaemenid empire Xerxes inherited, and what range of sources survives to reconstruct it?

The historical context for the study of Xerxes: the geography and extent of the Achaemenid empire inherited from Darius I; the ideology of Persian kingship under Ahura Mazda; the administrative structure of the empire c. 486 BC; an overview of the reign c. 486 to 465 BC; and the nature, range and limitations of the sources, from Herodotus and Aeschylus' Persae to the Persian royal inscriptions and the archaeology of Persepolis, with the problem of a Greek-dominated tradition

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Context dot point for Xerxes: the Achaemenid empire he inherited from Darius I and its extent c. 486 BC, the ideology of Persian kingship, the reign 486 to 465 BC, and the sources - Herodotus, Aeschylus' Persae, the royal inscriptions and Persepolis - with the problem of a Greek-dominated tradition.

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What was the nature of Xerxes' religious policy, and how far does the evidence support the idea of a deliberate campaign of religious persecution?

The nature and significance of Xerxes' religious policy, including his devotion to Ahura Mazda and Achaemenid royal ideology, the daiva inscription (XPh) and the debate over whether it records a real religious campaign, his treatment of local cults at Babylon, Egypt and the Greek temples burned in 480 BC, and the royal fire cult

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History Personalities dot point on Xerxes' religious policy. Ahura Mazda and Achaemenid royal ideology, the daiva inscription (XPh) and the Herzfeld versus Briant debate over whether it records a real campaign, tolerance versus interference at Babylon, Egypt and the temples burned at Athens in 480 BC, and the royal fire cult.

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How did Xerxes respond to the revolts in Egypt and Babylon early in his reign, and how far can the tradition that he sacked Babylon's great temple and removed the statue of Marduk be trusted?

Xerxes and the revolts in Egypt and Babylon: the Egyptian revolt of 486 to 485 BC inherited from the end of Darius' reign and its suppression; the Babylonian revolts under Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba around 484 BC and Xerxes' response; and the disputed destruction of the Esagila, the removal of the statue of Marduk-Bel and the dropping of the title King of Babylon, weighing the Greek tradition against the modern revisionist critique

Xerxes and the revolts in Egypt (486-485 BC) and Babylon (c. 484 BC) - the Egyptian revolt inherited from Darius and its suppression, the Babylonian revolts under Bel-shimanni and Shamash-eriba, and the disputed destruction of the Esagila, set against the Kuhrt, Sherwin-White and Briant critique.

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Why did Xerxes invade Greece in 480 BC, how was the campaign fought and lost, and how far can we reconstruct it from the largely Greek and victor-authored sources?

Xerxes and the invasion of Greece 480 to 479 BC: his motives for the campaign; the preparations, including the Hellespont bridges, the Athos canal and the muster at Doriscus; the course of the campaign - Thermopylae and Artemisium, the sack of Athens, the decisive naval defeat at Salamis, the withdrawal to Asia leaving Mardonius, and the final defeats at Plataea and Mycale in 479 BC; an assessment of Xerxes as a commander; and the problems of the largely Greek and victor-authored sources, especially Herodotus and Aeschylus

A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Xerxes' invasion of Greece, 480 to 479 BC. His motives, the Hellespont bridges, Athos canal and Doriscus muster, Thermopylae and Artemisium, the sack of Athens, the decisive defeat at Salamis, the withdrawal leaving Mardonius, Plataea and Mycale, Xerxes as commander, and the problem of the Greek victor sources.

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