Biology Q&A by dot point

Describe the structure and function of cellular components, including the plasma membrane (fluid mosaic model), cytosol, nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vesicles, vacuoles, cell wall and cytoskeleton

Describe the cell theory and distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, recalling that prokaryotes include bacteria and archaea

Explain the role of enzymes as biological catalysts and the effect of temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration and inhibitors on enzyme activity

Describe gas exchange and internal transport in plants (stomata, xylem, phloem, transpiration and the cohesion-tension theory) and animals (alveoli, gills, open and closed circulatory systems, the human circulatory system)

Describe the hierarchical organisation of multicellular organisms (specialised cells, tissues, organs and organ systems) and compare totipotent, pluripotent and multipotent stem cells

Describe passive and active transport processes that move materials across cell membranes, including diffusion, osmosis (hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic solutions), facilitated diffusion, protein pumps, endocytosis (phagocytosis and pinocytosis) and exocytosis

Summarise the inputs, outputs and locations of photosynthesis and of aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration

Explain how the surface area to volume ratio limits cell size and influences the structure of cells and exchange surfaces

Describe endocrine control of the internal environment, including the role of hormones, target cells, the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, and the regulation of blood glucose by insulin and glucagon

Explain the concept of homeostasis and the role of negative feedback in maintaining a stable internal environment, including stimulus, receptor, control centre, effector and response

Describe the first, second and third lines of defence in vertebrates, including innate immune responses (barriers, inflammation, phagocytes) and adaptive immune responses (humoral immunity through B cells and antibodies, cell-mediated immunity through T cells)

Describe nervous control, including the structure of a neuron, the generation of action potentials, synaptic transmission and the reflex arc

Describe osmoregulation and excretion in mammals, including the structure and function of the nephron and the role of ADH in regulating water balance

Describe the main groups of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protists, prions) and their modes of transmission, distinguishing between communicable and non-communicable disease

Explain thermoregulation in endotherms and ectotherms, including behavioural and physiological responses to heat and cold

Explain how vaccines work, the role of herd immunity, and the development and implications of antibiotic resistance for human health

Identify and describe abiotic and biotic factors that influence the distribution and abundance of organisms in an ecosystem, including tolerance ranges and ecological niche

Describe the cycling of matter through biogeochemical cycles, including the carbon, nitrogen and water cycles, and evaluate the impact of human activities on these cycles

Identify and classify organisms using the Linnaean hierarchical system (domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species) and construct and use dichotomous keys to identify organisms

Describe biodiversity as the variety of all life forms on Earth, including the different plants, animals, micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystems they form, recognising biodiversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels

Describe ecosystem dynamics, including the role of keystone species and the processes of primary and secondary succession, and explain how species composition changes over time

Describe energy flow through ecosystems including food chains, food webs and trophic levels, and explain biomass, productivity (GPP and NPP) and the 10 per cent rule of trophic efficiency

Determine the biodiversity of an ecosystem using measures of species richness, species evenness and Simpson's diversity index, and explain the limitations of these measures

Describe and explain population growth patterns including exponential and logistic models, carrying capacity, density-dependent and density-independent limiting factors, survivorship curves and r and k selection

Describe key biotechnology techniques including PCR, gel electrophoresis, recombinant DNA technology, transgenic organisms (GMOs) and CRISPR-Cas9, and evaluate their applications

Describe the structure of DNA, the process of semi-conservative replication and the role of key enzymes including helicase, DNA polymerase, primase and ligase

Explain gene expression through transcription and translation, including the role of mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, the codon table and ribosomes, and compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic gene expression

Apply Mendel's laws of segregation and independent assortment to predict the outcomes of monohybrid and dihybrid crosses using Punnett squares, and explain the purpose of a test cross

Describe types of mutation (point, frameshift, chromosomal) and the sources of genetic variation including meiosis, fertilisation and mutation, and explain the consequences of mutations for phenotype and population polymorphism

Explain natural selection as a mechanism of evolution including variation, selection pressure, differential survival and reproduction, fitness, and compare Darwinian and neo-Darwinian theories

Describe and apply non-Mendelian patterns of inheritance including codominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles, sex linkage and polygenic inheritance

Interpret pedigrees to deduce patterns of inheritance (autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, X-linked dominant, X-linked recessive) and calculate the probability of specified offspring genotypes and phenotypes