The causes, course and consequences of decolonisation in Asia and Africa from 1945, including key independence movements and their leaders

What this dot point is asking

SCSA wants you to explain why European colonial empires in Asia and Africa collapsed after 1945, how independence was achieved through both peaceful and violent struggle, and what the consequences were for the new nations and the international order. You need named examples, attention to the role of nationalism, the Second World War and the Cold War, and an awareness of historiographical debate over who or what ended empire. The option is examined through source analysis and essays in the external paper.

Decolonisation was driven by long-term and short-term causes. Colonial rule had bred educated nationalist elites who turned the rhetoric of self-determination and democracy against their rulers. The First World War and the principle of self-determination, and especially the Second World War, transformed the situation. The war exhausted the European powers economically and militarily, exposed the vulnerability of empire (the British surrender of Singapore to Japan in 1942 shattered the myth of European invincibility), and drew colonial peoples into the conflict in expectation of reward.

The post-war international climate was hostile to formal empire. The new superpowers, the United States and the USSR, were both broadly anti-colonial for ideological reasons, and the United Nations Charter endorsed self-determination. The Cold War made the developing world an arena of competition, giving nationalist leaders leverage and producing the non-aligned movement after the Bandung Conference of 1955.

In Asia, decolonisation came first and fast. India and Pakistan became independent in August 1947 after decades of struggle led by the Indian National Congress, Mohandas Gandhi's non-violent satyagraha campaigns, and Jawaharlal Nehru, alongside Muhammad Ali Jinnah's Muslim League. Independence brought the traumatic Partition into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan, with communal violence killing hundreds of thousands and displacing millions. Indonesia won independence from the Dutch by 1949 after armed struggle under Sukarno, and the French were defeated in Indochina at Dien Bien Phu in 1954.

In Africa, decolonisation accelerated from the late 1950s. Ghana, under Kwame Nkrumah, became the first sub-Saharan colony to gain independence in 1957, becoming a symbol of pan-Africanism. The "Year of Africa" in 1960 saw seventeen states become independent. Decolonisation was peaceful in some cases but violent in others: the Mau Mau insurgency in Kenya (1952 to 1960) and the brutal Algerian War of Independence against France (1954 to 1962) both involved severe repression before independence.

Consequences varied widely. Some transitions were orderly; many were not. Arbitrary colonial borders left ethnically divided states prone to conflict, as in the Congo crisis after Belgium's rushed withdrawal in 1960 and the secession of Katanga. New nations faced underdevelopment, weak institutions and economic dependence, which some leaders described as neo-colonialism, continued economic control after formal independence. The Cold War drew several new states into proxy conflicts. White-settler regimes resisted majority rule longest, delaying liberation in Rhodesia and apartheid South Africa.

Historiographically, debate centres on the relative weight of causes. "Metropolitan" interpretations stress decisions and constraints in the colonial capitals, especially economic weakness after 1945. "Peripheral" or nationalist interpretations stress the agency of colonial peoples and their movements in forcing the issue. International historians emphasise the Cold War and the changed global order. Most historians now see decolonisation as the product of all three working together.