Biology syllabus, dot point by dot point

structural, physiological and behavioural adaptations of plants and animals that enhance survival and allow life to exist in a wide range of environments, including extreme environments

specialisation and organisation of animal cells into tissues, organs and systems with specific functions: digestive, endocrine and excretory

apoptosis as a regulated process of programmed cell death, including the role of caspases, and the consequences of disruption to the regulation of the cell cycle and apoptosis with reference to the development of cancer

the binary fission of prokaryotic cells and the eukaryotic cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S and G2), mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase) and cytokinesis in plant and animal cells, with reference to checkpoints that regulate the cycle

the structure and specialisation of plant and animal cell organelles for distinct functions, including chloroplasts and mitochondria, and the suggested origins of mitochondria and chloroplasts as described by the endosymbiotic theory

surface area to volume ratio as an important factor in the limitations of cell size and the need for internal compartments (organelles) with specific cellular functions

specialisation and organisation of plant cells into tissues for specific functions in vascular plants, including intake, movement and loss of water

the characteristics of the plasma membrane as a semi-permeable boundary between the internal and external environments of a cell and the movement of hydrophilic and hydrophobic substances across it, including water (osmosis), simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, endocytosis and exocytosis

cells as the basic structural feature of life on Earth, including the distinction between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

chromosome structure and organisation, including the role of histone proteins, sex chromosomes and autosomes, homologous pairs and karyotypes as a visual representation of chromosomes used to identify chromosomal abnormalities

ways of manipulating DNA, including the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify DNA and gel electrophoresis to separate DNA fragments, with reference to DNA profiling

relationships between genes, the environment and the regulation of genes in producing variation in phenotype, including the role of epigenetic factors

the distinction between genes, alleles and a genome, and the use of pedigrees, Punnett squares and other tools to predict inheritance

predicted genetic outcomes for two genes that are either linked or assort independently (unlinked)

the production of haploid gametes from diploid cells by meiosis, including the significance of crossing over of chromatids in prophase I and independent assortment of homologous chromosomes in metaphase I for the generation of genetic diversity

models of inheritance that explain phenotype expression, including dominant and recessive autosomal patterns, codominance, incomplete dominance, multiple alleles and sex-linked genes, using Punnett squares to predict outcomes

predicted genetic outcomes of a monohybrid cross and a monohybrid test cross

pedigree charts and patterns of inheritance, including autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive and X-linked inheritance

biological consequences, and ethical, social and legal implications, of the use of reproductive cloning technologies, and of genetic screening for inherited conditions

the stimulus-response model and the role of signalling molecules, receptors and signal transduction in coordinating cellular responses, including the role of apoptosis as a regulated cellular response

the inputs, outputs and locations of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle and the electron transport chain in aerobic cellular respiration, and anaerobic fermentation in animal and plant cells

the role of enzymes and coenzymes in facilitating biochemical reactions, including factors affecting enzyme activity (temperature, pH, substrate concentration) and the effect of competitive and non-competitive inhibitors

the expression of a gene to form a functional protein in a eukaryotic cell, including transcription, RNA processing (5' capping, polyadenylation and splicing) and translation, and the role of mRNA, tRNA and ribosomes

the structure of genes including exons, introns and promoters and the role of regulator genes, including the role of the trp operon as an example of a regulatory process in prokaryotes

nucleic acids as information molecules that encode instructions for the synthesis of proteins: the structure of DNA, including nucleotide composition and the role of complementary base pairing, the three main forms of RNA (mRNA, tRNA, rRNA)

the inputs, outputs and locations of the light-dependent and light-independent stages of photosynthesis in plants (C3); the factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis; differences between C3, C4 and CAM plants

amino acids as the monomers of a polypeptide chain and the resultant hierarchical levels of structure that give rise to a functional protein

evidence for biological evolution from palaeontology (fossil record, transitional fossils), biogeography, comparative anatomy (homologous and analogous structures, vestigial organs) and molecular biology (DNA, protein sequence comparisons, molecular clocks)

the contributions of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace to the theory of evolution by natural selection; selection pressures, variation, differential reproductive success, fitness, adaptation, and the change in allele frequency over time

the types of gene and chromosomal mutations (point, frameshift, block; substitution, insertion, deletion, inversion, translocation, duplication, non-disjunction), causes of mutation (errors in DNA replication, mutagens) and the consequences of mutations on the gene product

the sources of genetic diversity within a sexually reproducing population, including independent assortment of chromosomes, crossing over during meiosis, random fertilisation, and the role of mutation as the original source of variation

the major trends in hominin evolution, including bipedalism, brain size, tool use and dentition; Australopithecus and Homo species; and the out-of-Africa hypothesis for the spread of Homo sapiens

the innate immune response, including physical, chemical and microbiological barriers and the inflammatory response; and the adaptive immune response, including the roles of B cells, T cells (helper and cytotoxic), antibodies, antigens, and immunological memory

the major groups of pathogens (bacteria, viruses, protozoa, fungi, prions) and the management of disease, including vaccination (active and passive, herd immunity), antibiotics, antivirals, and the emergence of antibiotic resistance

speciation, including allopatric and sympatric speciation, the role of reproductive isolating mechanisms (prezygotic and postzygotic), and the biological species concept