Investigate the rise and rule of Cleopatra VII, including the Ptolemaic dynasty and the situation of Egypt, her accession and dynastic struggles, her government of Egypt, her relationship with Julius Caesar, and her use of religion and image to project royal authority

What this dot point is asking

QCAA wants you to investigate how Cleopatra VII gained and used power in Ptolemaic Egypt. You should explain the Ptolemaic background and Egypt's relationship with Rome, her contested accession and dynastic struggles, her government of Egypt, her relationship with Julius Caesar, and how she used religion and image to project authority. The skill is reconstructing a ruler's exercise of power from sources that are mostly hostile, Roman and male, supplemented by coins, inscriptions and Egyptian monuments.

The answer

The Ptolemaic dynasty and Egypt

Cleopatra VII belonged to the Ptolemaic dynasty, a line of Macedonian-Greek rulers founded by Ptolemy I Soter, one of Alexander the Great's generals, who took Egypt after Alexander's death in 323 BC. For nearly 300 years the Ptolemies ruled from Alexandria, a Greek city that was the wealthiest and most cultured in the Mediterranean, home to the famous Library and Museum. The dynasty was Greek in language and culture, frequently married brother to sister in the Egyptian royal manner, and was riven by murderous internal feuds. By Cleopatra's birth around 69 BC the dynasty was weak, dependent on Roman goodwill, and Egypt was effectively a Roman client kingdom. Her father, Ptolemy XII Auletes, had bought Roman support to keep his throne, leaving Egypt heavily indebted to Roman financiers.

Accession and dynastic struggle

Cleopatra came to the throne in 51 BC at about 18, jointly with her younger brother Ptolemy XIII, whom she was expected to marry in Ptolemaic fashion. Conflict between their factions soon erupted, and by 49 BC Cleopatra was driven out of Alexandria by her brother's advisers. The wider Roman civil war then intervened: Pompey, defeated by Caesar at Pharsalus in 48 BC, fled to Egypt and was murdered on Ptolemy XIII's orders in a bid to win Caesar's favour. Caesar arrived in Alexandria pursuing Pompey and became the arbiter of the dynastic dispute.

Cleopatra and Julius Caesar

Cleopatra famously had herself smuggled into Caesar's presence in Alexandria (Plutarch's account of her being carried in wrapped in bedding is the source of the rolled-in-a-carpet legend) to plead her case directly. Caesar backed her. The Alexandrian War followed, in which Ptolemy XIII was defeated and drowned in the Nile in 47 BC, and Caesar restored Cleopatra to the throne, now alongside an even younger brother, Ptolemy XIV. Cleopatra bore a son, Caesarion (Ptolemy XV), whom she presented as Caesar's child. In 46 to 44 BC she visited Rome and stayed in Caesar's villa, a politically charged residence that scandalised conservatives such as Cicero. Caesar's assassination in 44 BC removed her Roman protector, and she returned to Egypt, soon eliminating Ptolemy XIV and ruling with the infant Caesarion as co-monarch.

Governing Egypt

Cleopatra was an active and capable ruler of a wealthy kingdom. Egypt's grain, controlled through a centralised royal economy, made it the breadbasket of the Mediterranean and gave Cleopatra resources that Roman politicians needed. The sources, even hostile ones, credit her with intelligence, command of languages (Plutarch says she could speak with many peoples in their own tongue and, unusually for a Ptolemy, reportedly learned Egyptian), and personal political skill. She managed the kingdom's finances, its religious institutions and its diplomatic relations with Rome through a period of constant crisis. Her court at Alexandria remained a centre of Hellenistic culture.

Religion and royal image

Cleopatra projected authority through religion and image far more deliberately than most Roman accounts admit. She identified herself with the goddess Isis, the great Egyptian mother goddess, taking the title the New Isis and appearing in Isis costume on ceremonial occasions. This linked her to both Egyptian religious tradition and the widespread Hellenistic cult of Isis. On Egyptian temple reliefs, notably at the Temple of Hathor at Dendera, she and Caesarion are depicted as traditional pharaohs making offerings to the gods, presenting her to Egyptian subjects as a legitimate native ruler in pharaonic dress. On her coinage, by contrast, she appears in a Hellenistic royal style with a strong, sometimes severe profile, projecting authority to a Greek and Roman audience rather than the conventional beauty of later legend. The contrast between the Egyptian temple image and the Greek coin image shows a ruler deliberately tailoring her self-presentation to different audiences.

The problem of the sources

Almost all the surviving literary evidence is Roman, later, and hostile, shaped by the propaganda of her enemy Octavian, who needed to portray her as a dangerous foreign seductress. Plutarch (writing around AD 100, but with access to earlier material including the memoirs of Cleopatra's doctor) is the fullest and relatively more balanced source. To recover Cleopatra the ruler rather than Cleopatra the legend, historians must set these accounts against the physical evidence: her coins, the Dendera reliefs, inscriptions, and papyrus documents from Egypt (one bearing a royal order possibly signed in her hand). Reconstructing her authority means reading the hostile literary tradition critically and giving weight to the Egyptian and numismatic sources.