§-Psychology syllabus

WA · SCSA← Psychology

Psychology syllabus, dot point by dot point

Every dot point in the WA Psychology syllabus, in syllabus order, with a focused answer for each. Open any dot point for the answer, exam-style questions and links to related points.

Unit 3: Memory and learning

Unit overview →

How do sensation and perception turn stimuli from the environment into meaningful information?

Sensation and perception: processes of sensation (reception, transduction, transmission) and processes of perception (selection, organisation and interpretation)

What role does attention play in determining what we remember?

The role of attention in memory: selective and divided attention as seen in the Cocktail party effect (Cherry, 1953)

How do models of memory explain the way information is encoded, stored and retrieved?

Models for explaining memory: the processes of encoding, storage and retrieval; features of the multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968), including the duration, capacity and encoding of the sensory register, short-term memory and long-term memory (procedural and declarative, semantic and episodic); and features of the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974; Baddeley, 2000)

Which brain structures are involved in forming and storing memories?

Memory formation and structures of the brain: the role of the hippocampus in the formation and storage of memory (Henry Molaison case study); the role of the cerebellum in the formation and storage of implicit memories; the role of the amygdala in the formation of memories

Why do we forget information that was once stored in memory?

Process of forgetting: types of forgetting, including retrieval failure, interference (proactive and retroactive), motivated forgetting and decay theory

How is information retrieved from memory, and how can retention be measured?

Remembering: the role of recall (free, serial and cued), recognition and re-learning in memory

How does the depth at which information is processed affect how well it is remembered?

Levels of processing model of memory (Craik and Lockhart, 1972): shallow (structural, phonemic) and deep (semantic, elaboration) processing; study: Depth of processing and the retention of words in episodic memory (Craik and Tulving, 1975)

How can rehearsal and repetition be used to improve memory?

Rehearsal as a strategy to improve memory: maintenance rehearsal, elaborative rehearsal, and the role of repetition as seen in Ebbinghaus and the forgetting curve (1885)

What can cause memory loss, and how does it affect behaviour and emotion?

Causes of memory loss and impacts on behaviour and emotion: trauma (Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, CTE); degeneration (Alzheimer's disease); drug induced (Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome, WKS)

How do the three theories of learning in the syllabus differ in the way they explain behaviour?

Theories of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning and social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), and the designated studies Pavlov (1902), Watson and Rayner (1920), Thorndike (1898), Skinner (1948) and Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)

How does classical conditioning explain learning through the association of stimuli?

Classical conditioning: neutral stimulus, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus and conditioned response; stimulus generalisation, discrimination, extinction and spontaneous recovery; study: Pavlov's dogs (Pavlov, 1902); study: 'Little Albert' experiment (Watson and Rayner, 1920)

How does operant conditioning explain voluntary behaviour through its consequences?

Operant conditioning: the three-phase model (antecedent, behaviour, consequence); reinforcement (positive and negative reinforcers); punishment (positive and negative punishers); schedules of reinforcement (fixed, variable, interval and ratio); study: Law of effect (Thorndike, 1898); study: Skinner box (Skinner, 1948)

How does social learning theory explain behaviour acquired by watching and imitating models?

Social learning theory (Bandura, 1977): the process of observational learning (attention, retention, reproduction, motivation, reinforcement); modelling and vicarious reinforcement; study: 'Bobo doll' experiment (Bandura, Ross and Ross, 1961)

How are learning theories applied to change behaviour in the real world?

Application and evaluation of learning theories in behaviour modification: systematic desensitisation as a treatment for phobias; token economies

How do psychologists formulate research and design investigations that control extraneous variables?

Science inquiry (formulating research and methodology): aims, research questions, variables (independent, dependent, control, extraneous and confounding), directional and non-directional hypotheses and qualitative inquiry questions; research designs (experimental and non-experimental, observational, case study, correlational, longitudinal, cross-sectional); sampling (convenience, snowballing, random, stratified) and random allocation; experimenter effect and demand characteristics; single-blind procedures and standardisation

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How do psychologists collect, analyse and evaluate data to draw evidence-based conclusions?

Science inquiry (data collection, processing and evaluation): qualitative and quantitative data; interviews, open-ended surveys, physiological measures and rating scales; subjective and objective data; graphs and tables; mean and median; Pearson's correlation coefficient; evidence-based conclusions; validity, reliability, generalisability, improvements and ethical implications

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How do we explain the causes of our own and others' behaviour, and what biases distort these judgements?

Explain attribution theory, including internal and external attributions, and the fundamental attribution error, actor-observer bias and self-serving bias

How does the brain change in response to experience, learning and injury through neuroplasticity?

Explain neuroplasticity, including developmental and adaptive plasticity, and how experience and injury reshape neural connections

Why does inconsistency between attitudes and behaviour create discomfort, and how do we reduce it?

Explain Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, including the conditions that produce dissonance and the strategies used to reduce it

How are attitudes structured and changed, and how does cognitive dissonance drive behaviour?

Describe the tri-component model of attitudes, attitude-behaviour consistency, and Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance

How are the major structures of the brain organised, and what does hemispheric specialisation reveal about the localisation of function?

Describe the major structures of the brain and the lobes of the cerebral cortex, and explain hemispheric specialisation and localisation of function

How do the nervous system, neurotransmitters and the stress response shape human behaviour?

Explain the structure and function of the nervous system, the role of neurotransmitters, and the biological stress response

Unit 4: Motivation, wellbeing and health

Unit overview →

Where does motivation come from?

Sources of motivation: physiological, cognitions, emotions, social

How does self-determination theory explain the quality of a person's motivation?

Self-determination theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985): amotivation, extrinsic and intrinsic motivation; psychological needs for motivation (autonomy, competence, relatedness)

How does Maslow's hierarchy of needs explain human motivation and growth?

Hierarchy of needs (Maslow, 1954, 1970): deficiency needs (physiological, safety, love and belongingness, esteem) and growth needs (self-actualisation) (1954); the expanded hierarchy (1970) with cognitive, aesthetic and transcendence needs; the concept of self-actualisation and the characteristics of a self-actualised person

How do psychologists define and model wellbeing?

Models of wellbeing: subjective wellbeing, the model of subjective wellbeing (Diener, 1984) with the key components life satisfaction and affective balance; psychological wellbeing, the six factor model of wellbeing (Ryff, 1989): autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with others, purpose in life, self-acceptance

What is stress, and what kinds of stressors cause it?

Stress as defined by Selye (1936); types of stress, distress and eustress (Selye, 1983); stressors: types (environmental, psychological, social, cultural) and characteristics (nature, duration, strength)

How does Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome describe stress as a response?

Models of stress: stress as a response, the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model (Selye, 1936, 1983): physiological response to stress (heart rate, breathing rate) and the stages alarm, resistance and exhaustion

How does the Social Readjustment Rating Scale measure stress as a stimulus?

Models of stress: stress as a stimulus, the application of the Social Readjustment Scale (Holmes and Rahe, 1967) to assess the impact of stressors on individual health and wellbeing

How does the transactional model explain why people respond differently to the same stressor?

Models of stress: stress as a transaction, the Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984): the interaction between individual and environment; the role of cognitive appraisal (primary and secondary appraisal); methods of coping (problem-focused, emotion-focused)

How does stress affect health, and which coping strategies help or harm?

Health related consequences of stress: maladaptive and adaptive coping strategies

Why do we sleep?

Purpose of sleep: evolutionary and restorative

What happens during the stages of sleep across a night?

Sleep-wake cycle: the four stages of non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, their characteristics (sleep state, heart rate, eye movement, muscle tension), and the length and repetition of the sleep cycle

What causes sleep deprivation, and how does it affect psychological and physical health?

Sleep deprivation: causes (shift work, drugs, sleep environment, stressors); psychological and physiological effects of partial sleep deprivation (mood, attention, reflex speed, vision) and chronic sleep deprivation (heart disease, obesity, insomnia, anxiety)

How can sleep hygiene improve sleep, and what does He et al. (2020) show about bedtime phone use?

Techniques to improve sleep hygiene: management of electronic devices, consistent sleep patterns, creation of a healthy sleep environment; study: Effect of restricting bedtime mobile phone use on sleep, arousal, mood and working memory (He et al., 2020)

What ethical guidelines and practices must guide psychological research with human participants and animals?

Ethical guidelines and practices for psychological research: the role of ethics committee approval and monitoring of conduct; protection from harm (physical and psychological), informed consent, withdrawal rights, deception, confidentiality, privacy, voluntary participation and debriefing; use of animals in research (replacement, reduction, refinement)

How do early attachments form between infants and caregivers, and why do they matter for development?

Explain attachment theory and attachment styles, with reference to the work of Bowlby, Ainsworth and Harlow

Why do people change their behaviour to match a group, and what factors increase conformity?

Explain conformity, including normative and informational social influence, and the factors affecting it, with reference to Asch's line study

How does culture shape behaviour, and how do individualist and collectivist cultures differ?

Explain cross-cultural psychology, including individualism and collectivism, and the difference between etic and emic approaches to research

How does being part of a group change individual behaviour through processes like social loafing, deindividuation and group polarisation?

Explain group processes including social loafing, deindividuation, group polarisation and groupthink, and their effects on individual behaviour

Why do ordinary people obey authority figures even when ordered to harm others?

Explain obedience to authority and the factors that influence it, with reference to Milgram's experiments and their ethical evaluation

What causes prejudice and discrimination between groups, and how can intergroup conflict be reduced?

Explain prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination, social identity theory, and strategies to reduce intergroup conflict, with reference to Tajfel, Sherif and Allport

What makes people help others, and why do bystanders often fail to help in an emergency?

Explain prosocial behaviour and the bystander effect, including the factors that increase or decrease helping, with reference to Latane and Darley

How do groups and authority influence conformity, obedience and helping behaviour?

Explain social influence including conformity, obedience, group processes, prosocial and antisocial behaviour, using key studies.

How does personality develop across the lifespan, and how do nature and nurture interact in development?

Describe Erikson's psychosocial stages of development and explain the nature-nurture interaction, including evidence from twin studies

How does children's thinking develop through Piaget's stages of cognitive development?

Describe Piaget's stages of cognitive development and key concepts such as schemas, assimilation, accommodation, object permanence and conservation

How do culture and group membership shape identity, prejudice and intergroup relations?

Explain the influence of culture on behaviour, social identity, prejudice, discrimination and strategies to reduce intergroup conflict.

How do cognitive, emotional and moral capacities develop across the lifespan?

Explain theories of development including Piaget's cognitive stages, attachment, and Erikson's psychosocial stages, with reference to nature and nurture.