Roman religion, priesthoods and the state cult, and the use of religion to legitimise political authority in the late Republic

What this dot point is asking

SCSA wants you to understand Roman state religion as part of the machinery of power, not a separate spiritual sphere. In Rome religion and politics were fused: the same aristocrats who held magistracies also held priesthoods, and control of ritual, omen and the calendar was a real political weapon. You need to explain how the cult was organised, who controlled it, and how leaders used it to legitimise authority. The Rome option is examined through source analysis and essays, so you must name and evaluate evidence such as Cicero's De Natura Deorum and De Divinatione, Livy and the Res Gestae.

Roman religion was concerned above all with the correct performance of ritual to maintain the pax deorum, the right relationship between Rome and its gods. It was civic rather than personal: the goal was the safety and success of the state, secured by precise sacrifice, prayer and the observance of festivals. There was no separate priestly caste; instead the major priesthoods were held by leading senators alongside their political offices, so that the same men who commanded armies and proposed laws also interpreted the will of the gods.

The priesthoods were organised into colleges. The college of pontiffs supervised sacred law, the calendar, burials and the cults of the state, and was headed by the pontifex maximus, Rome's chief priest, who became one of the most prestigious positions in the state. The college of augurs interpreted the auspices, the signs by which the gods approved or vetoed public action, especially the flight of birds. There were also the quindecimviri who consulted the Sibylline Books in times of crisis, and the Vestal Virgins, who guarded the sacred fire of Vesta on which Rome's safety was believed to depend.

The political uses of religion were everywhere. A magistrate who wished to obstruct a vote could declare that he was watching the heavens for omens, suspending public business. Priesthoods carried prestige that boosted a political career, and the office of pontifex maximus in particular conferred enormous standing. Julius Caesar understood this exactly: in 63 BC, while still relatively junior, he won election as pontifex maximus through lavish bribery, gaining a lifelong religious eminence that he used to underpin his political rise. As dictator he also reformed the calendar in 46 BC, producing the Julian calendar, an act that combined practical administration with the symbolic authority of ordering sacred time.

Cicero is our richest source for how the elite thought about religion, and a complex one. In works such as De Natura Deorum and De Divinatione he debates, often sceptically, whether divination really works, yet as an augur himself he defends the civic value of the traditional cult for social order. This tension is a gift for source analysis: it shows an educated Roman who may privately doubt the omens while publicly upholding a religion that bound the community and legitimated the governing class. Livy, writing under Augustus, by contrast presents religious observance as central to Rome's rise and religious neglect as a cause of disaster, a moralising perspective that must be weighed.

Augustus made the political use of religion central to his settlement. He restored eighty-two temples, revived lapsed priesthoods and ancient rituals, and presented himself as the pious restorer of traditional religion after the impieties of civil war, claims he makes proudly in the Res Gestae. He took the title pontifex maximus in 12 BC on the death of Lepidus, uniting the supreme religious office with supreme political power, and after his death he was deified. The Ara Pacis Augustae and the Secular Games of 17 BC projected an ideology of restored piety and renewed favour from the gods, binding the new regime to Rome's oldest traditions.

This dot point matters because it shows that in Rome power and authority were sacralised. Legitimacy depended on being seen to maintain the favour of the gods, and the institutions of religion were controlled by the same aristocracy that ran the state. Understanding the priestly colleges, the auspices and the office of pontifex maximus lets you explain how leaders manufactured legitimacy, and how Augustus in particular used religious restoration to make his rule appear traditional and divinely sanctioned.