Examine the end of the Cold War, including the Reagan-Gorbachev relationship, Gorbachev's reforms (glasnost and perestroika), the collapse of communist governments in Eastern Europe (1989), the reunification of Germany (1990), and the dissolution of the Soviet Union (December 1991)

What this dot point is asking

QCAA wants you to examine the end of the Cold War between 1985 (Gorbachev's accession) and 1991 (dissolution of the USSR), with attention to the Reagan-Gorbachev relationship, Gorbachev's domestic reforms, the revolutions of 1989 in Eastern Europe, German reunification, and the final dissolution of the Soviet Union.

The answer

The Cold War ended unexpectedly quickly between 1985 and 1991. By 1985 it appeared frozen in confrontation; by 1991 the Soviet Union had ceased to exist. The end was driven by a combination of Soviet systemic weakness, Gorbachev's reforms and diplomatic willingness, popular dissent in Eastern Europe, and Western (especially American) pressure.

The Second Cold War (1979-1985)

After detente collapsed, both sides escalated. Reagan (President 1981-1989) increased US defence spending (to about 6 percent of GDP), described the USSR as the "evil empire" (1983), and proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative ("Star Wars", 1983) for ballistic missile defence in space. Soviet leadership was fragile (Brezhnev's death 1982, Andropov 1982-1984, Chernenko 1984-1985). The 1983 Korean Air Lines flight 007 incident (Soviet jets shot down a civilian airliner) and the Able Archer NATO exercise (November 1983, which the USSR briefly feared was a nuclear strike preparation) marked the dangerous low point.

Gorbachev's accession (March 1985)

Mikhail Gorbachev (born 1931) became General Secretary of the CPSU on March 11, 1985, on the death of Chernenko. He was 54, the youngest Politburo member, and signalled reformist intentions. His diagnosis: the USSR's economic stagnation and military overstretch were unsustainable; reform was necessary to preserve the system.

Glasnost and perestroika (1986-1988)

Glasnost (openness). Increased freedom of expression. Censorship loosened; Soviet press began addressing previously taboo topics (Stalinist crimes, environmental disasters, economic failures). The Chernobyl disaster (April 26, 1986) accelerated glasnost: the initial Soviet cover-up was widely criticised; subsequent transparency was credited to glasnost.

Perestroika (restructuring). Economic reform aimed at limited market mechanisms within the planned economy. Cooperative enterprises, modest decentralisation, and incentive structures were introduced. Results were poor: half-reforms produced shortages, inflation, and declining living standards.

Democratisation (1988 onwards). Limited political reforms: contested elections to the Congress of People's Deputies (1989); the Communist Party's monopoly on power formally ended (1990); Gorbachev became Soviet President (1990).

Reagan-Gorbachev summits and arms control

Geneva Summit (November 1985). First Reagan-Gorbachev meeting. Established personal rapport.

Reykjavik Summit (October 1986). Near-agreement on the elimination of all nuclear weapons in 10 years. Broke down over SDI. The breakdown was widely seen as a missed opportunity but established the ambition for radical disarmament.

INF Treaty (December 8, 1987). Intermediate-range Nuclear Forces Treaty. Eliminated all US and Soviet ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges of 500 to 5,500 km. The first treaty to eliminate an entire class of nuclear weapons. Removed Pershing II from Western Europe and SS-20s from the USSR.

Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan (1988-February 1989). Gorbachev decided the war was unwinnable. The withdrawal removed a major irritant to detente.

START I (signed July 31, 1991). Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty. First strategic arms agreement to reduce (not just cap) numbers. Both sides committed to substantial reductions in strategic warheads.

The "Sinatra Doctrine" and the revolutions of 1989

Gorbachev announced that Eastern bloc states would be allowed to determine their own internal affairs - explicitly renouncing the Brezhnev Doctrine that had justified the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia. The phrase "Sinatra Doctrine" (after "My Way") was coined by a Soviet spokesman in 1989. The signal was unambiguous: the USSR would not intervene to preserve communist regimes.

The result was a chain of mostly peaceful revolutions:

Poland (June 1989). Round-table talks between the communist government and Solidarity led to partly-free elections. Solidarity won decisively. A non-communist Prime Minister (Mazowiecki) took office in September 1989, the first in the bloc since 1948.

Hungary (May 1989). Hungary began dismantling its border fence with Austria. In September 1989, Hungary opened the border, allowing East Germans on holiday to escape to the West. This decision contributed directly to the East German crisis.

East Germany (October-November 1989). Mass protests in Leipzig and other cities. Honecker was forced out (October 18). New leadership announced (November 9) that East Germans could travel freely; the Berlin Wall was effectively opened that night.

Czechoslovakia (November 1989). The "Velvet Revolution". Student-led mass protests forced the communist government to negotiate. Vaclav Havel became President in December 1989.

Bulgaria (November 1989). Zhivkov, the long-time leader, was removed by a Politburo coup.

Romania (December 1989). The only violent revolution. Ceausescu was overthrown and executed (December 25, 1989).

By the end of 1989, every Eastern European communist regime had fallen except Albania (which fell in 1991-92).

The fall of the Berlin Wall (November 9, 1989)

The most iconic moment of the Cold War's end. On the evening of November 9, an East German official misread a directive at a press conference and announced new travel regulations as taking effect "immediately". Berliners began crossing at checkpoints. Border guards, with no instructions to stop them, opened the gates. Crowds gathered atop the Wall and began dismantling it. By morning, the Berlin Wall had ceased to function.

The Wall itself was dismantled over the following months; pieces remain in museums worldwide.

German reunification (October 3, 1990)

The Two Plus Four Treaty (between the two German states and the four occupying powers, USA, UK, France, USSR) settled the international status of a unified Germany. East Germany joined the Federal Republic on October 3, 1990. The unified Germany remained in NATO (an outcome Gorbachev had initially resisted but eventually accepted).

The dissolution of the USSR (December 1991)

Reforms had unintended consequences inside the USSR itself:

Nationalist movements. Baltic states (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia) declared independence in 1990-1991. Other republics followed.

August 1991 coup attempt. Hardliners detained Gorbachev at his Crimea dacha and announced an emergency committee. The coup collapsed within three days, largely due to popular resistance led by Boris Yeltsin (President of the Russian Federation). Gorbachev returned to Moscow with his authority shattered.

Yeltsin's rise. Yeltsin negotiated the dissolution of the USSR with the leaders of Ukraine and Belarus at Belovezha (December 8, 1991). The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) was formed.

Dissolution. Gorbachev resigned as Soviet President on December 25, 1991. The Soviet flag was lowered over the Kremlin. The USSR formally ceased to exist on December 26, 1991. 15 successor states emerged.

Why did the Cold War end peacefully?

Several factors combined:

1. Soviet systemic weakness. Economic stagnation, technological lag, military overstretch.
2. Gorbachev's reformist intent. A different Soviet leader might have responded to weakness with repression rather than reform.
3. Reagan's pressure and engagement. Increased defence spending strained the Soviet economy; willingness to negotiate (Reykjavik, INF) gave Gorbachev a partner.
4. Popular dissent in Eastern Europe. Decades of accumulated grievance; Helsinki human-rights commitments empowered dissidents.
5. Renunciation of the Brezhnev Doctrine. Without Soviet willingness to use force in 1989, the regimes collapsed.
6. Nationalism. Once the central Soviet authority weakened, republic-level nationalism dissolved the USSR.

Historiography

Triumphalist (US conservative, 1990s). Reagan's confrontational policy and SDI bankrupted the USSR. The end of the Cold War was an American victory.

Gorbachev-centric. Without Gorbachev's reformist choices, the USSR would not have unravelled. The end was driven by Soviet initiative.

Structuralist. The USSR was already failing by the mid-1980s; the Cold War was bound to end. Specific leaders mattered for timing and mode, not outcome.

Reactive. Eastern European popular movements (and dissident networks empowered by Helsinki) drove the 1989 revolutions. The superpower leaders were responding to events on the ground.

In one sentence

The Cold War ended between 1985 and 1991 through the combination of Gorbachev's reforms (glasnost, perestroika), the Reagan-Gorbachev arms-control agreements (INF Treaty 1987, START I 1991), Soviet renunciation of the Brezhnev Doctrine enabling the peaceful revolutions of 1989 across Eastern Europe (culminating in the fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989), German reunification (October 1990), and the dissolution of the Soviet Union itself on 25 December 1991.