Option: Consumers

8 dot points across 8 inquiry questions, in syllabus order. Each dot point has a focused answer, with exam-style questions and worked answers where available.

Why do consumers need legal protection, who counts as a consumer, and what are consumer laws trying to achieve?

The nature of consumer law: the developing need for consumer protection; the definition of consumer; objectives of consumer laws; occupational licensing

HSC Legal Studies Consumers option. Why consumers need protection (from caveat emptor to the Australian Consumer Law), the legal definition of a consumer (the $100,000 threshold), the objectives of consumer laws, occupational licensing in NSW, and the 2026 reforms that doubled penalties and banned unfair trading practices from 2027.

14 min read →

How do contracts work for consumers, and which standards does the law impose on every consumer contract whatever the parties agree?

The nature of consumer law: contracts - types, elements, terms, exclusion clauses; standards implied by statutes

HSC Legal Studies Consumers option. The nature, function and regulation of consumer contracts - types, the elements of a valid contract, express and implied terms, exclusion clauses - and the standards implied by statute, from the Sale of Goods Act 1923 (NSW) to the Australian Consumer Law consumer guarantees, remedies, key cases (Valve, Mazda, Fitbit) and proposed 2025 reforms.

14 min read →

How does the law protect consumers from unjust contracts and from careless manufacturers and suppliers?

The nature of consumer law: unjust contracts - common law and statutory protection; the role of negligence in consumer protection

HSC Legal Studies Consumers option. Unjust contracts at common law (Amadio) and by statute (ACL unconscionable conduct, unfair contract terms unlawful since 9 November 2023, Contracts Review Act 1980 (NSW)), and the role of negligence (Donoghue v Stevenson, the Civil Liability Act 2002 (NSW), ACL safety defects, the pelvic mesh class action).

14 min read →

How does the law regulate marketing and advertising, and how effectively does it protect consumers from new marketing techniques?

The nature of consumer law: regulation of marketing and advertising - statutory protection, non-statutory controls on advertising; Contemporary issues concerning consumers: marketing innovations

HSC Legal Studies Consumers option. Statutory protection against misleading marketing (ACL s 18, s 29, bait advertising, pricing, unsolicited selling, spam), non-statutory controls (Ad Standards and the AANA codes), and marketing innovations - influencers, greenwashing, illusory discounts (Coles, 2026), ghost flights (Qantas, 2024), drip pricing and the 2027 unfair trading practices law.

15 min read →

How can consumers obtain redress, which organisations help them, and how effective are legal and non-legal measures in achieving justice for consumers?

Consumer redress and remedies: awareness and self-help; state government organisations; federal government organisations; industry organisations; the role of tribunals and courts; the role of non-government organisations; the role of the media; consumer remedies - individual, society

HSC Legal Studies Consumers option. Awareness and self-help, NSW Fair Trading and NCAT, the ACCC and ASIC, AFCA and industry ombudsmen and codes, courts and class actions, NGOs such as CHOICE, the media, and individual and societal remedies, with an evaluation of legal and non-legal measures and real HSC questions from 2023 and 2024.

15 min read →

What problems does credit create for consumers, and how effectively do legal and non-legal responses protect borrowers?

Contemporary issues concerning consumers: credit; identify and investigate this issue involving the protection of consumers and evaluate the effectiveness of legal and non-legal responses

HSC Legal Studies Consumers option. Credit as a contemporary issue - the National Consumer Credit Protection Act 2009 (Cth), responsible lending and the Westpac 'wagyu and shiraz' case, payday lending caps, credit cards, hardship, buy now pay later regulation from 10 June 2025, ASIC, AFCA and financial counsellors, and an evaluation of legal and non-legal responses.

14 min read →

How does the law certify that products are safe and accurately described, and how effectively do legal and non-legal responses protect consumers from unsafe products?

Contemporary issues concerning consumers: product certification; identify and investigate this issue involving the protection of consumers and evaluate the effectiveness of legal and non-legal responses

HSC Legal Studies Consumers option. Product certification as a contemporary issue - ACL safety standards, bans, recalls and injury reporting, button batteries and the $14 million City Beach penalty, Takata airbags, NSW e-bike battery certification, food and country of origin labels, voluntary certification marks, online marketplaces and the 2026 push for a general safety duty.

14 min read →

How has technology changed the risks consumers face, and how effectively do legal and non-legal responses protect consumers online?

Contemporary issues concerning consumers: technology; identify and investigate this issue involving the protection of consumers and evaluate the effectiveness of legal and non-legal responses

HSC Legal Studies Consumers option. Technology as a contemporary issue - online shopping and the ACL, scams ($2.18 billion lost in 2025) and the Scams Prevention Framework Act 2025, data breaches and privacy (Optus, Medibank, the first Privacy Act penalty, the 2025 privacy tort), subscription traps and the 2027 unfair trading practices law, with an evaluation of legal and non-legal responses.

15 min read →