← Module 7: Infectious Disease
Inquiry Question 3: How can the spread of infectious diseases be controlled?
Investigate and assess the effectiveness of historical and contemporary methods of prevention and control of infectious disease, including the contemporary application of Aboriginal protocols in the development of particular medicines and biological materials in Australia
A focused answer to the HSC Biology Module 7 dot point on Aboriginal protocols. Covers traditional knowledge of antimicrobial plants (smoke bush, tea tree, eucalyptus), the legal and ethical framework for benefit sharing, and contemporary research collaborations.
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What this dot point is asking
NESA wants you to describe how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge has informed the development of modern medicines or biological materials, and to evaluate the ethical and legal framework that governs the use of this knowledge. Strong answers cite a named plant, a named community where appropriate, and the contemporary protocols that protect traditional knowledge.
The answer
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples have applied detailed knowledge of Australian flora and fauna for tens of thousands of years, including the use of specific plants and animal products as antimicrobials, antiseptics and wound treatments. Contemporary pharmaceutical research draws on this knowledge under ethical protocols developed since the 1990s.
Examples of medicines and biological materials
Smoke bush (Conospermum species). Used by Noongar people in Western Australia for treating colds and infections. Screened by the US National Cancer Institute and found to contain conocurvone, a compound with activity against HIV in laboratory studies. WA legislation was amended in the 1990s to require benefit-sharing arrangements after the smoke bush case raised concerns about uncompensated extraction.
Tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifolia). Used by the Bundjalung peoples of northern New South Wales for skin infections and wound dressing. The essential oil contains terpinen-4-ol, an antimicrobial that is active against bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus, including methicillin-resistant strains) and fungi (Candida, tinea). Tea tree oil is now a commercial topical antimicrobial product.
Eucalyptus oil. Used across Aboriginal Australia for respiratory ailments and as an antiseptic. Cineole-rich oils from Eucalyptus polybractea and E. globulus have documented antimicrobial activity. Commercial preparations include topical antiseptics and cough preparations.
Kakadu plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana). Used by Aboriginal peoples of northern Australia. Has the highest known concentration of vitamin C of any plant, and contains ellagic and gallic acids with antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. Now used in cosmeceuticals and food preservation.
Wattle (Acacia species). Several Acacia species were used as wound dressings; the bark contains tannins with astringent and antimicrobial activity.
The ethical and legal framework
Contemporary use of Aboriginal knowledge in pharmaceutical research is governed by several overlapping protocols.
Free, prior and informed consent (FPIC). Traditional knowledge holders must be informed of the proposed use of their knowledge and biological materials, and must consent before collection or research begins.
Benefit sharing. When commercial outcomes result, traditional custodians share in the financial and non-financial benefits. This may take the form of royalties, joint patents, employment, or investment in community programs.
Attribution. Knowledge sources are acknowledged in scientific publications, patents and commercial products.
Cultural protocols. Knowledge about plants and their uses is often held by specific knowledge holders. Research must respect who may share knowledge, how it is recorded, and what is appropriate to publish.
Legal instruments
The Nagoya Protocol on Access and Benefit Sharing (2014). An international treaty under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. Australia is a signatory. Requires equitable benefit sharing from the use of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge.
The AIATSIS Code of Ethics for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Research (2020). Sets standards for consent, benefit sharing and cultural respect in Indigenous research in Australia.
Biodiscovery Act 2004 (Queensland). Requires a benefit-sharing agreement for the commercial use of native biological material in Queensland.
National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC) Guidelines. Govern health research with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples.
Assessing the contribution
Aboriginal knowledge has made measurable contributions to Australian medicine, particularly in topical antimicrobials (tea tree oil, eucalyptus oil) and in pharmaceutical leads (Kakadu plum, smoke bush). The historical record includes many cases of extraction without consent or benefit sharing, and contemporary protocols are an attempt to redress that history. Effectiveness of the protocols depends on enforcement and on whether agreements deliver real benefits to the communities involved.
Worked example
A pharmaceutical company wishes to investigate the antibacterial properties of a Northern Territory plant traditionally used by a remote Aboriginal community.
Steps required under contemporary protocols.
- Approach the relevant Traditional Owners and Land Council. Provide a clear description of the research, its commercial potential and any risks.
- Obtain free, prior and informed consent in writing, in the community's preferred language.
- Negotiate a benefit-sharing agreement covering royalties, employment, community investment and intellectual property.
- Ensure attribution in publications and patents.
- Comply with NT and federal legislation on biodiscovery and Indigenous research.
Common traps
Treating "Aboriginal knowledge" as one body. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge is held by specific nations, language groups and individual knowledge holders. Where possible, name the community.
Ignoring the ethical framework. Markers expect explicit mention of consent and benefit sharing, not just a list of plants.
Confusing tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) with tea (Camellia sinensis). Tea tree oil is from a Myrtaceae shrub.
Calling these "alternative medicines." They are documented sources of pharmaceutical leads with peer-reviewed evidence for antimicrobial activity.
In one sentence
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge of plants including smoke bush, tea tree, eucalyptus and Kakadu plum has contributed antimicrobial compounds and pharmaceutical leads, and the contemporary application of this knowledge is governed by protocols of free, prior and informed consent, benefit sharing and attribution under the Nagoya Protocol and the AIATSIS Code of Ethics.
Past exam questions, worked
Real questions from past NESA papers on this dot point, with our answer explainer.
2021 HSC4 marksDescribe how Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander knowledge has contributed to the development of a named medicine, and outline the ethical protocols that should govern such research.Show worked answer →
A 4-mark answer needs a named medicine, an Aboriginal source community where possible, and explicit reference to consent and benefit sharing.
Named example. Smoke bush (Conospermum species), endemic to Western Australia, was used by Noongar people for treating colds and infections. In the 1980s, samples collected by the WA Department of Conservation were screened by the US National Cancer Institute and found to contain conocurvone, an active compound with promising activity against HIV in laboratory tests. Although the compound did not progress to clinical use, the case became a landmark in discussions of bioprospecting.
Ethical protocols. Research using Indigenous knowledge or biological materials should follow four principles.
- Free, prior and informed consent from the traditional custodians before any collection or research.
- Acknowledgement of the knowledge source in publications and patents.
- Benefit sharing through royalties, employment, or community investment from any commercial outcome.
- Cultural protocols respected, including who may speak about the plant and how it is collected.
Australia is a signatory to the Nagoya Protocol (2014) on access and benefit sharing, and the AIATSIS Code of Ethics (2020) governs Indigenous research practice.
Markers reward a named medicine, the Aboriginal community where known, and explicit reference to consent and benefit sharing.
Related dot points
- Investigate and assess the effectiveness of historical and contemporary methods of prevention and control of infectious disease, including local, regional and global strategies (hygiene, quarantine, vaccination and public health campaigns)
A focused answer to the HSC Biology Module 7 dot point on disease control strategies. Covers hygiene, quarantine, vaccination programs, public health campaigns, and the role of the WHO, with named examples at each scale and a frank assessment of effectiveness.
- Investigate and assess the effectiveness of pharmaceuticals as treatment strategies for the control of infectious disease, including: antivirals and antibiotics, the development of antibiotic resistance, and the role of immunisation including the impact of vaccination programs in conferring herd immunity
A focused answer to the HSC Biology Module 7 dot point on pharmaceutical control of infectious disease. Covers antibiotic and antiviral mechanisms, the evolution of antibiotic resistance, vaccination types, and the herd immunity threshold with named examples.