← Section II (Ancient Societies): Old Kingdom Egypt to the death of Pepy II
Who were the major pharaohs of the Old Kingdom?
The major pharaohs of the Old Kingdom (Djoser, Sneferu, Khufu, Khafre, Menkaure, the kings of Dynasties V and VI including Unas and Pepy II) and their achievements
A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on the pharaohs of the Old Kingdom. Djoser (Step Pyramid), Sneferu (three pyramids), Khufu (Great Pyramid), Khafre (Sphinx), Menkaure, Unas (first Pyramid Texts), and Pepy II (longest reign).
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What this dot point is asking
NESA wants you to describe the major pharaohs of the Old Kingdom (Dynasties III to VI, c. 2686 to 2160 BC) and their achievements.
Dynasty III (c. 2686-2613 BC)
Djoser (c. 2670 BC)
The first major monumental pharaoh of the Old Kingdom.
Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Designed by his vizier Imhotep. The first large stone monument in Egypt. Began as a mastaba (flat-roofed tomb) and was progressively expanded into six stepped layers. Approximately 62 metres tall. Earlier royal tombs had been smaller mud-brick mastabas; Djoser's pyramid established the precedent for monumental stone royal burials.
Imhotep. Djoser's vizier, sage, and architect of the Step Pyramid. Later deified. Considered the founder of Egyptian medicine and one of the earliest known polymaths in human history.
Dynasty IV (c. 2613-2494 BC)
The great pyramid-building dynasty.
Sneferu (c. 2613-2589 BC)
Founder of Dynasty IV. Built three pyramids:
- Meidum. Begun as a stepped pyramid, converted to true pyramid. Collapsed during or shortly after construction.
- Bent Pyramid (Dahshur). Started at a steep angle (about 54 degrees), then reduced to about 43 degrees mid-construction (possibly because of stability concerns).
- Red Pyramid (Dahshur). The first true pyramid completed. Approximately 105 metres tall.
Sneferu's pyramid-building experimentation enabled Khufu's Great Pyramid.
Khufu (Khufu/Cheops, c. 2589-2566 BC)
Builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza.
Great Pyramid. Originally 481 feet (146.6 m) tall, currently 138.5 m due to lost casing. Approximately 2.3 million stone blocks. Built over 20-25 years using approximately 20,000-40,000 workers (the slave-labour stereotype is now widely rejected; most workers were skilled craftsmen and seasonal labourers).
Tomb chamber. No body or burial goods survived (looted in antiquity).
Sources. Herodotus (5th century BC) provides the most extensive ancient account, though much is unreliable. Recent archaeological work has refined understanding of the construction.
Khafre (Khafra/Chephren, c. 2558-2532 BC)
Built the second Giza pyramid. Slightly smaller than Khufu's (143.5 m original) but on slightly higher ground, so appears comparable.
The Great Sphinx. Conventionally attributed to Khafre's reign. Carved from a natural limestone outcrop. 73 metres long, 20 metres high. The face is conventionally identified as Khafre's.
Menkaure (Mycerinus, c. 2532-2503 BC)
Built the third Giza pyramid. Substantially smaller than the first two (65 m). His pyramid retained better-preserved valley temple complex.
The end of the great Dynasty IV pyramid building.
Dynasty V (c. 2494-2345 BC)
Smaller pyramids than Dynasty IV. The rise of the sun cult of Ra at Heliopolis.
Userkaf (c. 2494-2487 BC)
Founder of Dynasty V. Built a small pyramid at Saqqara and the first sun temple at Abusir.
Niuserre (c. 2453-2422 BC)
Built the most elaborate sun temple at Abusir. Sun temples replaced the great pyramid as the major Dynasty V royal monument.
Unas (c. 2375-2345 BC)
Last king of Dynasty V. Built a pyramid at Saqqara.
Pyramid Texts. Unas's pyramid is the first to contain Pyramid Texts (religious texts inscribed on the walls). These are the earliest surviving religious texts in human history, predecessors of the Coffin Texts (Middle Kingdom) and Book of the Dead (New Kingdom).
Dynasty VI (c. 2345-2160 BC)
Teti (c. 2345-2323 BC)
Founder of Dynasty VI. Established traditions that continued under successors.
Pepy I (c. 2321-2287 BC)
Substantial reign. Continued the Old Kingdom traditions. Power increasingly shared with regional nomarchs.
Pepy II (c. 2278-2184 BC)
Longest-reigning pharaoh in history. Traditional 94 years (Manetho); modern estimates 64-94 years (some scholars accept 90+ years, others reduce to about 64). Came to the throne aged 6.
Decline of central authority. During his long reign, power devolved increasingly to regional nomarchs. The central state weakened.
End of reign and collapse. After Pepy II's death (c. 2184 BC), the Old Kingdom collapsed. The First Intermediate Period (c. 2160-2055 BC) followed.
Possible causes. Climate change reducing Nile floods, the rise of regional nomarchs, the prolonged reign concentrating power problematically, possible foreign pressure (from Libyans, Asiatics).
In one sentence
The major Old Kingdom pharaohs span Djoser of Dynasty III (Step Pyramid c. 2670 BC), the Dynasty IV pyramid-builders (Sneferu's three pyramids, Khufu's Great Pyramid at Giza c. 2580 BC, Khafre with the Great Sphinx, Menkaure's smaller pyramid), the Dynasty V sun-temple kings (Userkaf, Niuserre) and the introduction of the Pyramid Texts under Unas (c. 2350 BC), through to Pepy II's exceptional 90+ year reign that culminated and exhausted the centralised Old Kingdom system before its collapse around 2160 BC.
Past exam questions, worked
Real questions from past NESA papers on this dot point, with our answer explainer.
Practice (NESA)8 marksOutline the major achievements of three pharaohs of the Old Kingdom.Show worked answer →
An 8-mark response with three named pharaohs.
Djoser (Dynasty III, c. 2670 BC). First major monumental pharaoh. His Step Pyramid at Saqqara, designed by his vizier Imhotep, was the first large stone monument in Egypt. Established the pattern of monumental royal tombs that would culminate in the Giza pyramids.
Khufu (Dynasty IV, c. 2589-2566 BC). Builder of the Great Pyramid at Giza. 481 feet tall; approximately 2.3 million stone blocks. The largest pyramid ever built. The construction was a massive state project involving tens of thousands of workers. Khufu's tomb chamber contained no surviving body or original burial goods (looted in antiquity); his successor Khafre's pyramid contained a stone sarcophagus.
Pepy II (Dynasty VI, c. 2278-2184 BC). Longest-reigning pharaoh in history (over 90 years, per Manetho's tradition; modern estimates 64-94 years). His reign culminated and exhausted the centralised Old Kingdom system. Power devolved increasingly to regional nomarchs. The collapse of central authority shortly after his death produced the First Intermediate Period.
Markers reward dated specifics for each pharaoh and the link between individual reigns and broader political trends.
Related dot points
- Geographical, political and social context of Old Kingdom Egypt (Dynasties III to VI, c. 2686-2160 BC), including the unification of the Two Lands, the rise of divine kingship, and the centralised administrative state
A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on the geographical, political and social context of Old Kingdom Egypt. Dynasties III through VI, the rise of divine kingship under Djoser, the pyramid age culminating with Khufu, and the structural framework of the centralised state.
- The pyramid construction project as the central state activity of the Old Kingdom, the religious and political meaning of pyramids, the social hierarchy, and the eventual decline of central authority
A focused answer to the HSC Ancient History dot point on Old Kingdom pyramids and society. The political and religious meaning of pyramid construction, construction techniques and workforce organisation, the social hierarchy, and the eventual fragmentation of central authority that ended the period.