Quick questions on Second Triumvirate and the Battle of Actium: HSC Ancient History

The Liberators Brutus and Cassius had raised armies in the East after Caesar's assassination. Their forces met those of Antony and Octavian at Philippi in Macedonia in October 42 BC.

After Philippi the Triumvirate divided the empire. Octavian took Italy and the West (Spain, Gaul). Antony took the East (Greece, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt's region of influence). Lepidus took Africa.

Antony based himself in the East, first in Athens with Octavia and then increasingly in Alexandria with Cleopatra VII.

In a public ceremony at the Gymnasium of Alexandria, Antony conferred royal titles on Cleopatra and her children.

From 33 to 32 BC, Octavian and Antony fought for Roman public opinion.

The Triumvirate had legally expired on 31 December 33 BC. Octavian and Antony's consulships continued the impasse.

The decisive engagement took place at the entrance to the Ambracian Gulf, off the western coast of Greece.

Octavian pursued Antony and Cleopatra to Egypt. In August 30 BC Antony, hearing false reports of Cleopatra's death, fell on his sword. Cleopatra, after attempting to negotiate with Octavian, committed suicide (traditionally by asp; the historicity is debated).

Adrian Goldsworthy (Augustus: First Emperor of Rome, 2014) treats Actium as the decisive military victory but emphasises the political and propaganda preparation.

Antony was the servant of an Eastern queen, betraying Roman virtue. Antony had abandoned the lawful wife Octavia for the foreign sorceress Cleopatra. The Donations were the giveaway of Roman territory.

Octavian was a usurper, an enemy of his fellow triumvir, and the violator of triumviral agreements. Octavian's adoption was suspect; his power rested on military force alone.

Octavian claimed to have seized Antony's will from the Vestal Virgins and published its contents. The will allegedly confirmed Antony's identification with Cleopatra: he asked to be buried in Alexandria. The publication, though probably partly fabricated, completed Antony's political destruction in Rome.

Octavian's fleet under Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa consisted of around 250 lighter Liburnian ships. Antony commanded around 230 heavier quinqueremes. Cleopatra's Egyptian squadron of around 60 ships, including the treasure transports, was behind Antony's line.

Agrippa had blockaded Antony's fleet and army on land for months. Antony's troops were suffering from disease and desertion. Antony's strategy was either to defeat Octavian in a decisive battle or to break out to Egypt with the fleet.

On 2 September 31 BC, Antony's fleet sailed out to engage. After several hours of indecisive fighting, Cleopatra's Egyptian squadron raised sail and broke through the centre carrying the treasure. Antony followed in a smaller vessel.