← Unit 2: The changing world order (1945 to 2010)
How did the Cold War end, and what new global order emerged in the 1980s and 1990s?
The end of the Cold War (1985 to 1991), the collapse of the Soviet Union (December 1991), the emergence of a unipolar US-led world order in the 1990s, and the acceleration of globalisation
A focused answer to the VCE Modern History Unit 2 key knowledge point on the end of the Cold War and the emergence of globalisation. Gorbachev's reforms (1985 onwards), the revolutions of 1989, German reunification (October 1990), the dissolution of the USSR (December 1991), the unipolar 1990s, and the growth of globalisation (NAFTA 1994, WTO 1995, EU expansion).
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What this dot point is asking
VCAA wants you to explain how the Cold War ended between 1985 and 1991, the emergence of the unipolar 1990s order, and the accelerating globalisation that characterised the decade.
End of the Cold War
Gorbachev's reforms (1985-1991)
Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet leader in March 1985. His reforms responded to systemic Soviet weakness (economic stagnation, military overstretch).
Glasnost (openness). Increased freedom of expression. Soviet press began addressing previously taboo topics (Stalinist crimes, environmental disasters).
Perestroika (restructuring). Limited market mechanisms within the planned economy. Results were poor: shortages, inflation, declining living standards.
Foreign policy.
- Reykjavik Summit (1986): near-agreement on radical nuclear disarmament.
- INF Treaty (1987): eliminated intermediate-range nuclear forces.
- Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan (1988-1989).
- Renunciation of the Brezhnev Doctrine ("Sinatra Doctrine"): Eastern European states could "do it their way".
Revolutions of 1989
Without Soviet enforcement, Eastern European communist regimes collapsed:
- Poland (June 1989). Round-table talks; Solidarity won elections; non-communist Mazowiecki became Prime Minister (September).
- Hungary. Opened Austrian border (May), allowing East Germans to escape (September).
- East Germany. Mass protests in Leipzig (October). Honecker forced out. New leadership announced free travel (9 November); the Berlin Wall was opened that night.
- Czechoslovakia (November). Velvet Revolution. Vaclav Havel became President (December).
- Bulgaria (November). Zhivkov removed.
- Romania (December). Ceausescu overthrown and executed.
German reunification (3 October 1990)
The Two Plus Four Treaty (between the two German states and the four occupying powers) settled the international status. The Federal Republic absorbed the German Democratic Republic. The unified Germany remained in NATO.
Dissolution of the USSR
Inside the USSR, nationalism strengthened:
- Baltic independence. Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia declared independence (1990-1991).
- August 1991 coup. Hardliners detained Gorbachev; coup collapsed within three days due to popular resistance led by Boris Yeltsin.
- Belovezha Accords (8 December 1991). Yeltsin negotiated dissolution with Ukraine and Belarus.
- Dissolution (25 December 1991). Gorbachev resigned; the Soviet flag was lowered. 15 successor states emerged.
The unipolar 1990s
After 1991, the United States was the world's only superpower. Key features:
NATO expansion. Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999. Russia accepted (with reluctance).
Gulf War (1990-1991). US-led coalition expelled Iraq from Kuwait. Demonstrated US military dominance and UN cooperation (US-Soviet cooperation in the Security Council).
Russian decline. Russia under Yeltsin (1991-1999) suffered economic collapse, social crisis, and loss of international status. Putin (President from 2000) reasserted Russian power.
End of History thesis. Francis Fukuyama's 1989 essay (book 1992) argued that liberal capitalism had decisively won the ideological contest; major historical conflict was over. The thesis seemed plausible in 1992 but was challenged by subsequent events.
Continued conflicts.
- Yugoslav wars (1991-2001): collapse of multi-ethnic Yugoslavia; ethnic cleansing in Bosnia (1992-1995); Kosovo (1998-1999).
- Rwandan genocide (April-July 1994): around 800,000 Tutsis killed.
- First Chechen War (1994-1996).
Globalisation
The 1990s saw the acceleration of globalisation: increasing flows of trade, finance, people, ideas across borders.
Trade.
- NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement, 1 January 1994). USA, Canada, Mexico.
- World Trade Organization (1 January 1995). Replaced GATT. Strengthened rules and enforcement.
- European Union expansion. From 12 members in 1993 to 15 by 1995; 10 more in 2004.
China. Continued economic opening under Deng Xiaoping (from 1978) and successors. By 2000, China was the world's leading manufacturer.
Internet. Commercial internet from 1991 (World Wide Web). Rapid growth through the 1990s. Globally connected by 2000.
Migration. Greater labour and refugee migration. The European refugee crisis would intensify in the 21st century.
Critiques. Anti-globalisation movements emerged. Seattle WTO protests (1999), Genoa G8 protests (2001). Concerns about labour standards, environmental impact, cultural homogenisation, inequality.
In one sentence
The Cold War ended between 1985 and 1991 through Gorbachev's reforms (glasnost, perestroika), the peaceful revolutions of 1989 across Eastern Europe (fall of the Berlin Wall 9 November 1989), German reunification (3 October 1990) and the dissolution of the USSR (25 December 1991); the resulting unipolar 1990s order was led by the USA, characterised by NATO expansion, the rise of globalisation (NAFTA 1994, WTO 1995), the integration of formerly communist economies, and the temporary appearance of a "End of History" triumph of liberal capitalism that was contested by the 1990s' new conflicts (Yugoslav wars, Rwandan genocide, Gulf War) and challenged seriously after 11 September 2001.
Past exam questions, worked
Real questions from past VCAA papers on this dot point, with our answer explainer.
Year 11 SAC10 marksExplain how the Cold War ended and the new world order that emerged in the 1990s.Show worked answer →
A Year 11 SAC.
Thesis. The Cold War ended between 1985 and 1991 through a combination of Soviet systemic weakness, Gorbachev's reformist choices, popular movements in Eastern Europe, and Western (especially American) pressure; the resulting 1990s order was unipolar, US-led, and characterised by accelerating globalisation, although new conflicts and challenges had already begun to emerge.
End of Cold War.
Gorbachev's reforms: glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring) from 1985. Reykjavik Summit (1986). INF Treaty (1987). Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan (1988-1989). Renunciation of the Brezhnev Doctrine ("Sinatra Doctrine"). Revolutions of 1989: Poland, Hungary, East Germany (fall of Berlin Wall 9 November 1989), Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria, Romania. German reunification (3 October 1990). Dissolution of USSR (25 December 1991).
New world order.
Unipolar dominance: the USA was the only superpower after 1991. NATO expanded eastward (Poland, Hungary, Czech Republic joined 1999). Russia under Yeltsin (1991-1999) accepted a diminished international role.
Globalisation.
Trade agreements: NAFTA (1994), WTO (1995). EU expansion: Eastern European states joined 2004 and later. China's economic opening from late 1970s accelerated.
Conclusion. The 1990s appeared to be a triumph of liberal capitalism (Francis Fukuyama's "End of History" thesis), but the decade also saw new conflicts (Yugoslav wars 1991-2001, Rwandan genocide 1994, Gulf War 1990-1991, 9/11 imminent).
Markers reward the chronological structure, specific events with dates, and explicit framing of both the end of the Cold War and the new world order.
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