← Unit 1: Change and conflict (1918 to 1939)
What ideologies emerged or grew in the interwar period, and why did they appeal?
The rise of communism (Bolshevik Revolution 1917, Soviet Russia), fascism (Mussolini's March on Rome 1922), and Nazism (Hitler and the NSDAP), and the appeal of authoritarian and totalitarian ideologies in the interwar period
A focused answer to the VCE Modern History Unit 1 key knowledge point on the rise of ideologies. The Bolshevik Revolution (1917) and the foundation of communism; Mussolini's fascism in Italy (March on Rome 1922); Hitler's Nazism in Germany; the common features of totalitarianism; and why authoritarianism appealed in the interwar context.
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What this dot point is asking
VCAA wants you to explain the rise of communism, fascism and Nazism in the interwar period and the appeal of authoritarian / totalitarian ideologies. The dot point is the ideological foundation for understanding the political transformation of Europe between 1918 and 1939.
Communism: the Bolshevik Revolution and Soviet Russia
Marxist theory. Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels argued capitalism would inevitably collapse through proletarian revolution, replaced by a stateless, classless communism. The intermediate stage was a dictatorship of the proletariat.
Russian Revolution 1917. The Tsarist regime collapsed in February 1917 (overwhelmed by WWI losses and economic crisis). A Provisional Government failed to end the war. In October 1917 (November in the Gregorian calendar), the Bolsheviks under Lenin seized power. The world's first communist state was established.
Civil War (1918-1921). Bolshevik Reds vs anti-Bolshevik Whites. Foreign intervention (including British, French, Japanese, American forces) failed to dislodge the Bolsheviks. The Soviets won.
Stalin's rise (1924-1929). After Lenin's death (1924), Stalin consolidated power through bureaucratic manoeuvring against Trotsky and others. From 1928 he launched rapid industrialisation (Five-Year Plans) and the collectivisation of agriculture.
Soviet model. A one-party state with state ownership of the economy, central planning, state-controlled media, mass mobilisation, and severe repression of dissent. The Soviet model would inspire and frighten the world for the rest of the century.
Fascism: Italy under Mussolini
Background. Italy entered WWI on the Allied side but felt cheated of promised gains at Versailles ("mutilated victory"). Postwar Italy suffered economic crisis, labour unrest and political fragmentation.
Mussolini. Benito Mussolini, a former socialist, founded the Fasci di Combattimento (1919). The fascist movement combined nationalism, anti-socialism, militarism, and corporatism (cooperation between business, labour and state).
March on Rome (October 1922). Mussolini's blackshirts marched on Rome. King Victor Emmanuel III appointed Mussolini Prime Minister rather than confront him.
Consolidation. By 1925-1926, Mussolini had transformed his government into a one-party fascist state. Opposition parties banned, press censored, parliament replaced by the Grand Council of Fascism.
Features of Italian fascism.
- Authoritarian one-party state.
- Corporatist economy (state coordinated business and labour).
- Nationalist and imperialist (later: Abyssinia 1935, alliance with Nazi Germany).
- Cult of leadership ("Il Duce").
- Less racially obsessed than Nazism (although anti-Semitic laws came in 1938 under German influence).
Nazism: Hitler and the NSDAP
Hitler. Austrian-born Adolf Hitler (1889-1945) served in the German army in WWI. After the war he joined the small Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (German Workers' Party), renamed Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP, Nazi) under his leadership.
Mein Kampf (1925). Hitler's manifesto laid out core Nazi ideology: anti-Semitism, anti-communism, German racial supremacy, Lebensraum (living space) in Eastern Europe, contempt for democracy.
1923 Beer Hall Putsch. Hitler's failed coup attempt in Munich. He was imprisoned briefly and used the trial as publicity.
Rise through elections (1928-1932). The Nazi vote grew from 2.6 percent (1928) to 37 percent (July 1932), boosted by the Great Depression. Hitler was appointed Chancellor on 30 January 1933.
Consolidation (1933-1934). Reichstag Fire Decree (February 1933) suspended civil liberties. Enabling Act (March 1933) gave Hitler dictatorial powers. Night of the Long Knives (June 1934) eliminated SA leadership and consolidated Hitler's grip. Hindenburg's death (August 1934) allowed Hitler to combine Chancellor and President.
Features of Nazism.
- Authoritarian one-party state with cult of the Führer.
- Race-based ideology: Aryan supremacy, exclusion of Jews and others.
- Aggressive militarism and territorial expansion.
- Total state coordination (Gleichschaltung) of civil society.
- Persecution of perceived enemies (Jews, communists, dissidents, Roma, gay people, disabled).
The appeal of authoritarianism
Common factors in interwar appeal:
Postwar disillusionment. Veterans, especially, felt democratic governments had failed.
Fear of communism. After 1917, propertied classes feared communist revolution. Fascist parties presented themselves as the strong response.
Economic crisis. Hyperinflation (Germany 1923), the Great Depression (1929 onwards), mass unemployment created openings for radical politics.
Weak democratic institutions. Newer democracies (Weimar Germany, post-Habsburg states) had weak roots and were easier to subvert.
Charismatic leadership. Strong-man leaders offered decisive action against the perceived failures of democratic compromise.
Nationalism. Wounded national pride (Versailles for Germany, "mutilated victory" for Italy) created openings for nationalist movements.
Totalitarianism
Both Nazism and Stalinism are often described as totalitarian: regimes that demand total control over the public and private lives of citizens. Common features:
- One-party state with cult of the leader.
- Comprehensive ideology covering all aspects of life.
- State control of mass media.
- Suppression of independent civil society.
- Use of terror against dissidents.
Italian fascism was authoritarian but less totalitarian than Stalinism or Nazism: the Catholic Church retained substantial autonomy, the monarchy continued, and the regime was less personally violent.
In one sentence
The interwar period saw the rise of three authoritarian ideologies: communism (Bolshevik Revolution 1917, Soviet model under Lenin and Stalin), fascism (Mussolini's March on Rome 1922 and the Italian one-party state), and Nazism (Hitler's NSDAP coming to power in January 1933, then the Enabling Act and consolidation by 1934); all three appealed to postwar populations through promises of strong leadership, national renewal, and protection against the perceived threats of the opposite political extreme.
Past exam questions, worked
Real questions from past VCAA papers on this dot point, with our answer explainer.
Year 11 SAC8 marksCompare the appeal of fascism and Nazism in interwar Europe.Show worked answer →
A Year 11 SAC comparison.
Thesis. Fascism (Italy) and Nazism (Germany) shared a common appeal rooted in postwar disillusionment, fear of communism and economic insecurity, but Nazism was more radical, more racialised, and more militarist than Italian fascism.
Common appeals.
- Postwar disillusionment. Both Italy (felt cheated of the "mutilated victory" at Versailles) and Germany (Versailles as humiliation) had reasons to reject the post-war settlement.
- Fear of communism. The Bolshevik success in Russia (1917) and revolutionary unrest in Germany (1918-1923) made middle classes receptive to anti-communist movements.
- Economic insecurity. Both economies suffered through the 1920s and the Great Depression after 1929.
- Charismatic leadership. Mussolini and Hitler offered strong leadership in contrast to ineffectual democratic governments.
Distinctive Nazi appeals.
- Racism and antisemitism. Central to Nazi ideology; absent or marginal in early Italian fascism.
- More aggressive militarism. The Nazis aimed at Lebensraum (living space in Eastern Europe); Italian fascism's expansionism was more limited.
- Greater mobilisation. The Nazi state was more totalitarian, with greater control over civil society.
Conclusion. Both ideologies appealed to the postwar middle classes anxious about communism and economic decline. Nazism's distinctive radicalism made it more extreme but the underlying appeal of authoritarian solutions was common across interwar Europe.
Markers reward the parallel structure, named events with dates, and recognition of similarity and difference.
Related dot points
- The impact of WWI on Europe, the collapse of empires, the Treaty of Versailles (June 1919) and the post-war territorial and political settlement
A focused answer to the VCE Modern History Unit 1 key knowledge point on the impact of WWI. The collapse of the German, Russian, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires, the Treaty of Versailles, key terms (war guilt, reparations, territorial losses, disarmament), the League of Nations, and the political and economic instability of the post-war period.
- The challenges facing democratic states in the 1920s, including the Weimar Republic in Germany, post-war Britain and France, the United States in the 'Roaring Twenties', and the changing role of women
A focused answer to the VCE Modern History Unit 1 key knowledge point on democratic states in the 1920s. The Weimar Republic in Germany (hyperinflation 1923, Dawes Plan, Stresemann era), post-war Britain and France, the United States in the Roaring Twenties (Prohibition, mass culture, consumer boom), and women's enfranchisement and changing social roles.
- The rise and consolidation of authoritarian regimes in the 1930s (Nazi Germany from 1933, Stalinist USSR, militarist Japan), aggressive foreign policy, the failure of collective security, and the path to WWII
A focused answer to the VCE Modern History Unit 1 key knowledge point on the 1930s. Nazi consolidation in Germany (1933-1934), the Great Terror in the USSR (1936-1938), militarist Japan in Manchuria (1931) and China (1937), the collapse of collective security (Abyssinia 1935, Rhineland 1936, Anschluss 1938, Czechoslovakia 1938-1939, Munich Agreement, invasion of Poland 1 September 1939).