Investigating and interpreting the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum, including the history of excavation from 1748, the methodologies of Fiorelli, Maiuri, and Wallace-Hadrill, conservation issues, and ethical debates about display

What this dot point is asking

NESA expects you to know the history of excavation and interpretation of Pompeii and Herculaneum from the 1700s to today, the named directors and methodologies, the conservation crises and responses, the ethical debates about display (especially of human remains), and the role of modern representations (documentaries, films, museum exhibits). This dot point is the meta-level of the Core Study.

The answer

Discovery and early excavation (1709 to 1860)

Herculaneum was rediscovered in 1709 when workmen sinking a well struck the ancient theatre. Prince d'Elboeuf began tunnelling for marble and statues. Systematic excavation began under King Charles III of the Two Sicilies in 1738 under Roque Joaquin de Alcubierre, with Karl Weber as the more careful recorder from 1750.

Pompeii was rediscovered in 1748, also under Alcubierre. Early work was treasure-hunting; objects were removed to the royal collection (now the Naples Archaeological Museum). Excavated buildings were often reburied to protect their contents.

The Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum was excavated by tunnel under Weber in the 1750s, recovering around 1,800 papyrus scrolls from the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus's library, along with around 90 bronze sculptures including the canonical "Drunken Faun" and "Resting Hermes." The Villa has been only partially re-excavated since.

The Fiorelli era (1860 to 1875)

Giuseppe Fiorelli became director of the Pompeii excavations in 1863 under the new Italian state. His reforms transformed the site.

Stratigraphic excavation. Fiorelli excavated houses from above downward, preserving walls intact rather than tunnelling.

The regio and insula numbering. Fiorelli divided Pompeii into nine regiones, each containing numbered insulae and houses. This system remains in use.

The body cast technique (1863). Fiorelli poured liquid plaster into voids left by decomposed bodies in the hardened ash. Over 100 casts have been produced. The technique transformed the human evidence.

Public access. Fiorelli opened the site to the public, established admission charges, and trained guides.

The Maiuri era (1924 to 1961)

Amedeo Maiuri directed the Pompeii excavations from 1924 to 1961, and also led the major Herculaneum excavations from 1927. His tenure produced spectacular discoveries but also controversial reconstructions.

Herculaneum. Maiuri exposed around four hectares (around 20 per cent of the site), revealing the Decumanus Maximus, the Hall of the Augustales, the House of the Wooden Partition, and the House of the Mosaic Atrium. Maiuri reconstructed roofs and upper storeys using reinforced concrete to support fragile remains.

Pompeii. Maiuri excavated the Via dell'Abbondanza, the Praedia of Julia Felix, the House of Loreius Tiburtinus (now called the House of Octavius Quartio), and the Suburban Baths. He also produced the standard guidebooks.

Maiuri's reconstructions saved many fragile structures but used materials (concrete, steel) and methods inconsistent with the original construction. Some 20th-century interventions have since accelerated rather than prevented decay.

The conservation crisis (late 20th to early 21st century)

By 2000 the Pompeii archaeological park was in crisis. Of around 64 hectares excavated, only a fraction was being maintained. Stratigraphic walls collapsed; frescoes faded; tourist pressure eroded paths and floors.

The 2010 Schola Armaturarum collapse. On 6 November 2010, the Schola Armaturarum (a gladiatorial training building on the Via dell'Abbondanza) collapsed after heavy rain. The collapse made international news and embarrassed the Italian government. The 1930s reinforced-concrete reconstruction had trapped moisture and accelerated decay.

The Great Pompeii Project (2012 to ongoing). Funded by 105 million euros from the European Union and the Italian government, the project prioritised emergency stabilisation, drainage, and conservation. The Direzione Generale Pompei was established in 2014 with autonomous management.

The 2014 to 2025 excavations of Regio V. New excavations in unexplored areas of Pompeii (Regio V) under Massimo Osanna (Director 2014 to 2020) and Gabriel Zuchtriegel (2020 onward) have produced major discoveries: the House of Jupiter, the House with the Garden, the Charcoal Graffito (suggesting an October eruption date), and new Thermopolium frescoes.

The Anglo-American Herculaneum Conservation Project

The Herculaneum Conservation Project (since 2001), led by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, is jointly funded by the Packard Humanities Institute, the British School at Rome, and the Italian Soprintendenza. It prioritises conservation of already-excavated areas over new excavation.

The project favours anastylosis (reassembly of original fallen elements with new fasteners), reversible interventions, and minimal new material. The roof and drainage repair of the Decumanus Maximus has stabilised the central area.

Wallace-Hadrill's monograph Herculaneum: Past and Future (2011) sets out the project's philosophy: conservation, not reconstruction.

Ethics of human remains

The display of body casts and skeletons raises ethical questions. The Garden of the Fugitives, the Boy of Oplontis, and the named individuals at the Lupanare are individual humans whose dignity in death is debated.

Estelle Lazer (Resurrecting Pompeii, 2009) treats anthropological study as scientifically legitimate while urging respectful display. Some scholars (Sarah Levin-Richardson, 2019) argue for limiting public display of skeletons; others argue the casts are central to the educational value of the site.

The 2021 reopening of the Antiquarium at Pompeii repositioned the cast of the "Pompeii Couple" in a more reflective display context.

Modern representations

The site has been represented across media.

Documentaries. BBC's Pompeii: The Last Day (2003), with CGI reconstruction of the eruption. Mary Beard's Meet the Romans (2012) and Pompeii: The Life of a Roman Town (2010) for popular audiences.

Films. Hollywood's Pompeii (2014, directed by Paul W.S. Anderson) is a romantic disaster movie. Earlier films include The Last Days of Pompeii (1935, 1959, 1984 TV miniseries).

Museum exhibitions. "A Day in Pompeii" toured major museums in 2008 to 2010. The "Last Supper in Pompeii" exhibition at the Ashmolean (2019) and "Pompeii: The Exhibition" (Sydney, 2022) brought objects to audiences in person.

Digital reconstructions. The 3D model of Pompeii by the Swedish Pompeii Project (Insula V.1, since 2000) is the standard reference for non-destructive recording.

Investigation timeline

How to read a source on this topic

Section I sources on investigation typically include photographs of body casts in situ, the Schola Armaturarum collapse, 19th-century engravings of excavations, or extracts from Fiorelli, Maiuri, or Wallace-Hadrill. Three reading habits.

First, date the methodology. An 1880s engraving reflects Fiorelli-era practice; a 1930s photograph reflects Maiuri; a 2010s photograph reflects the Anglo-American Conservation Project. Methodologies have changed; date the source.

Second, identify the interpretive stance. Maiuri's reconstructed upper storeys reflect a "reanimate" stance; Wallace-Hadrill's conservation reflects a "preserve" stance. The source's politics of intervention are part of its evidence.

Third, weigh the ethical register. Photographs of body casts in glass cases raise questions about dignity. Recent display (the 2021 Antiquarium) responds to these questions; older display (cases at the Naples Museum) reflects 19th-century practice.

Common exam traps

Treating Pompeii as fully excavated. Around one-third of Pompeii (around 22 hectares of the city) remains unexcavated. New discoveries continue (Regio V, the 2018 charcoal graffito).

Confusing Alcubierre and Fiorelli. Alcubierre opened the site (1748, treasure-hunting). Fiorelli professionalised it (1863, body casts, regio system).

Missing the 2010 Schola Armaturarum collapse. This is the canonical event in the modern conservation crisis. Memorise the date and the cause.

Treating "modern representation" as only film. Beard's documentaries, museum exhibitions, Lego models, and digital 3D reconstructions all count.

In one sentence

Pompeii and Herculaneum have been investigated since 1709 (Herculaneum) and 1748 (Pompeii), professionalised under Giuseppe Fiorelli from 1863 (body casts, regio numbering), opened on a major scale by Amedeo Maiuri from 1924 to 1961 (with controversial reconstructions), thrown into conservation crisis by the 2010 Schola Armaturarum collapse, and reframed since 2001 by the Anglo-American Herculaneum Conservation Project under Andrew Wallace-Hadrill (conservation over reconstruction) and from 2012 by the EU-funded Great Pompeii Project (stabilisation and new discoveries in Regio V).